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THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 

THE  POWERS 


NEW  COLLECTIONS  OF  UNIVERSAL  INTEREST 


In  Preparation: 
Ready  December  1,  1914: 

H.  H.  Pius  X— The  Conclave— H.  H.  Benedict  XV 

A  biography  of  H.  H.  Pius  X  and  appreciation  of  his  reign,  the  procedure  of 
the  Conclave,  and  a  biography  of  H.  H.  Benedict  XV,  with  illustrations  in  color 
and  half  tone.  

To  be  published  after  the  war  is  finished  and  peace  concluded : 

The  European  War — Campaigns  and  Episodes 

A  correct  and  impartial  description,  with  the  conclusions  of  the  diflFerent 
general  staffs,  with  authentic  pictures. 


To  be  published  a  few  weeks  later: 

The  European  War — Heroic  Episodes 

Anecdotic  description  of  the  most  prominent  heroic  deeds  according  to  the 
official  reports  of  the  orders  and  decorations  distributed  by  the  different  nations, 
with  original  etchings  and   illustrations. 

To  be  published  a  few  zveeks  later : 

The  European  War — Consequences 

A  study  of  the  geographical,  economic  and  political  changes  and  moral  effects 
of  the  conflict. 

Each  volume  of  the  European  War  is  absolutely  complete  in  itself 


N.  B. — If  our  patrons  are  interested,  upon  receipt  of  a  notice  with  legible  signature 
and  address,  we  shall  be  pleased  to  send  for  inspection,  free  of  charge,  a  copy  of  the  desired 
publication  as  soon  as  published. 


rxxc 


THE 

EUROPEAN  WAR 


The  Powers 

I        1 


EDITED  BY 

R.  STROPPA-QUAGLIA 


NEW  COLLECTIONS  OF  UNIVERSAL  INTEREST 

PUBLISHED  BY 


^ifcy 


T ^        »  =>*^^*^ T -^^ >~  [j 


COPYRIGHT,  1914 
BY  EDITIONS  D'  ART  CO. 


PRINTED    BY 

BOOK   publishers'  PRESS 

NEW   YORK 


^. 


S  2 


In  the  compilation  of  this  book  advantage  has  been  taken  of  the  courteous 
permission  to  reproduce  pictures  from  various  pubHcations  to  which  acknowl- 
edgement is  made  below.  In  no  case,  however,  has  any  use  been  made  knowingly 
of  any  copyrighted  picture  without  the  permission  of  the  proprietor  of  the  copy- 
right. The  text  and  most  of  the  pictures,  paintings  and  etchings  reproduced, 
are  wholly  original.  We  now  make  grateful  acknowledgement  of  courtesies 
received  from  the  proprietors  of  the  following  publications : 

Illustrated  London  News  Armee  et  Marine 

The  Graphic  Lecture  pour  tous 

Black  and  White  Je  sais  tout 

Army  and  Navy  Le  quinzaine  Illustre 

Illustrierte  Zeitung  Le  Monde  Illustre 

Deutsche   Illustrierte  Zeitung  Illustrazione  Italiana 

Die  Woche  La  Lettura  v 

Illustration  Francaise  Varietas 

as  well  as  from   THE  INTERNATIONAL  NEWS  SERVICE 
and   from  UNDERWOOD  AND  UNDERWOOD 

for  their  pictures  used  for  reproduction,  and  to  these  concerns  and  publications, 
we  tender  hereby  due  credit,  appreciation  and  thanks. 

EDITIONS  D'  ART  CO. 


327405 


Introduction 

The  present  European  War  is  one  of  the  great  crises  or  turning  points  in 
the  history  of  all  the  nations  engaged  in  it.  Whatever  the  future  of  the  nations 
may  be — whether  it  be  a  phase  of  progress  or  dedine — it  will  take  a  new  direc- 
tion, for  these  nations  have  been  violently  torn  from  the  groove  along  which 
their  lives  have  hitherto  run,  and  to  which  return  is  now  forbidden. 

Any  attempt  to  trace  the  causes  of  this  great  struggle,  any  discussion  of 
the  course  of  events,  any  prophecies  for  the  future,  would  be  premature,  and 
indeed  an  impossible  task.  While  war  is  in  process,  personal  feelings  cloud 
the  judgment  and  dim  the  perspective  in  which  causes  and  results  can  be  seen 
in  their  proper  relations.  Though  the  various  nations  have  stated  their  official 
positions  in  the  different  White,  Blue,  Orange  and  Gray  papers  and  thus  have 
invited  the  consideration  of  the  world,  the  ordered  paragraphs  of  a  diplomatic 
statement  do  not  offer  a  broad  enough  field  for  conjecture,  and  it  would  be 
neither  wise  or  profitable  to  weigh  the  exaggerated  rumors  which  drift  with  the 
smoke  from  the  battlefields. 

Writers  who  to-day  engage  in  the  task  of  recounting  the  economic,  military 
and  moral  condition  of  the  major  European  powers,  can  scarcely  escape  the 
presentiment  that  their  work  must  prove,  in  some  cases  at  least,  a  kind  of  epitaph. 
In  fact,  what  is  written  in  this  book — accurate  and  true  as  it  was  only  a  few 
weeks  ago — already  belongs  to  the  past  history  of  ten  nations.  Never  again  will 
Europe — or  the  World — resume  the  aspect  which  is  here  described.  A  great 
historical  alignment  of  nations  and  peoples  is  vanishing  before  our  eyes. 

It  is  these  considerations  (besides  the  indirect  influence  which  such  a  titanic 
struggle  must  exercise  on  the  national  and  social  life  of  every  civilized  nation), 
which  lend  such  an  interest  and  pathos  to  the  present  war.  An  old  familiar 
condition,  which  we  had  presumed  to  be  as  stable  as  humanity  itself,  is  changing, 
and  what  the  new  condition  will  be  we  cannot  even  guess.  We  purposely  avoid 
touching  on  the  savage  methods  by  which  this  change  is  effected,  for  the  dark 
aspect  which  war  must  always  wear  needs  no  emphasizing. 

The  Editors  of  the  present  work  place  before  the  eyes  of  their  readers  ten 
nations  moving  into  the  greatest  conflict  of  history  in  all  their  glorious  panoply. 
Their  military,  naval  and  economic  resources  and  the  territories  they  rule  are 
given  as  they  stood  at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  but  who  shall  say  how  they 
stand  to-day?  Readers  may  read  in  this  work  the  past  history  of  these  countries, 
while  the  latest  and  most  vital  events  of  this  history  are  being  enacted.     Full 


information  is  given  of  forms  of  government,  of  princes,  of  kings,  and  of  much 
else  which  will  not  survive  the  present  war  unimpaired. 

The  Editors  believe  that  the  wealth  of  illustration,  which  increases  the 
interest  and  value  of  their  volume,  will  later  possess  a  tenfold  value  and  interest 
as  a  means  of  enabling  readers  to  visualize  an  Old  Regime  which  has  passed. 

With  the  close  of  hostilities  and  after  the  publication  of  the  official  reports 
of  the  different  general  staffs,  both  of  the  warring  and  neutral  nations,  sufficient 
facts  will  be  public  to  offer  a  legitimate  field  for  opinion,  and  access  will 
be  had  to  sources  which  will  make  possible  an  accurate  and  impartial  account  of 
the  war.  Then  the  Editors  have  planned  to  publish  other  volumes,  the  material 
for  which  is  already  gathered.  Arrangements  have  been  made  to  obtain  the 
valuable  co-operation  of  prominent  political  and  military  authorities  of  the  differ- 
ent nations  in  order  to  have  only  the  most  accurate  description  of  facts. 

We  wish  to  offer  our  thanks  and  best  appreciation  to  the  consulates  of  the 
warring  nations  for  their  very  kind  assistance  in  enabling  us  to  consult  the  latest 
official  statistics. 

We  desire  also  to  express  a  very  sincere  and  deep  appreciation  to  the  Royal 
and  Imperial  Austro-Hungarian,  and  to  the  Imperial  German  General,  Consuls^ 
who  in  the  midst  of  their  pre-occupation  and  press  of  work,  found  time  ta 
revise  the  chapters  of  the  sections  of  their  respective  countries. 

THE  EDITORS. 


The  Red  Cross 


Ten  per  cent,  of  the  profit  of  our  publication 
is  devoted  to  the  Red  Cross  fund.  A  monthly 
financial  statement  will  be  made  public  and  the 
allotted  sum,  divided  among  Austria-Hungary, 
England,  France,  Germany  and  Russia,  in  five  equal 
parts,  will  be  sent  to  the  respective  consulates  from 
which  it  will  be  forwarded  to  the  Red  Cross  abroad. 

The  monthly  financial  statement  will  be  revised 
by  a  special  board,  among  whose  members  we  have 
the  honor  of  enlisting: 

R.  H.  L,  Cottenet  Harrison  G.  Rhodes 

Henry  G.  Gray  Luigi  Sillitti 

Philip  Lewisohn  Henry  J.  Whigham 


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"WOMEN  IN  WAR"  BY  PETER  KAHLMAN 


THE  RED  CROSS 


Though  a  Red  Cross  society  was  not  organized  until  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century,  various  nursing  orders  of  Sisters  were  accustomed  to  visit  tht  field 
after  a  battle  and  do  what  they  could  to  alleviate  the  sufferings  of  the  wounded. 
In  the  Crimean  War  of  1854,  Florence  Nightingale,  who  had  studied  nursing 
with  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  volunteered  to  form  a  band  of  lay  nurses  for  the 
relief  of  the  soldiers  and  her  services  won  for  her  the  gratitude  of  the  nations. 
In  1861,  Henri  Dunant  published  his  experiences  of  the  Franco-Italian  War 
against  Austria  (1859)  in  "Un  Souvenir  de  Solferino."  This  book  created  such 
a  deep  impression  and  the  public  was  so  aroused  by  the  conditions  revealed,  that 
an  unofficial  conference  met  at  Geneva  in  1863,  under  the  auspices  of  M.  Gustave 
Moynier,  to  discuss  plans  for  the  relieving  of  the  condition  of  wounded  soldiers. 
The  meeting  was  attended  by  delegates  from  16  governments  and  remained  in 
session  4  days.     It  was  followed  by  a  convention  to  which  all  nations  were  invited 


to  send  delegates,  and  which  convened  at  Geneva  in  1864.  A  code  for  the 
alleviation  of  suffering  during  war  was  drawn  up,  and  has  since  been  adopted 
by  most  of  the  European  countries.  This  code  was  revised  on  July  6,  1906,  and 
by  it  all  the  countries  agree  to  respect  the  persons  and  property  of  those  who 
voluntarily  devote  themselves  to  this  work.  They  must  have  a  recognized  cos- 
tume, flag  and  arm  badge  (a  red  cross  on  a  white  ground).  This  insignia  was 
adopted  out  of  compliment  to  the  Swiss,  whose  national  flag  is  a  white  cross  on 
a  red  ground.  The  Red  Cross  must  on  all  occasions  be  accompanied  by  the  national 
flag.  Each  treaty  nation  must  have  one  national  committee,  civil  in  character 
and  function,  which  shall  be  the  medium  of  communication  with  its  government, 
and  which  alone  shall  have  the  right  to  use  the  red  cross. 

The  Red  Cross  first  came  into  practical  operation  during  the  Franco-Prussian 
War,  but  owing  to  lack  of  management  did  not  accomplish  as  much  as  had  been 
expected.  Since  then  more  attention  has  been  paid  to  organization,  and  the 
European  countries  have  efficient  Red  Cross  corps  attached  to  their  armies.  Aside 
from  considerations  of  humanity,  they  realized  that  a  wounded  soldier  when 
properly  taken  care  of,  was,  in  many  cases,  able  to  resume  the  field  within  a 
comparatively  short  time,  and  it  was  thus  much  easier  to  fill  the  gaps  of  the 
regiments  caused  by  the  havoc  of  war.  In  war,  the  Red  Cross  mobilizes  with  the 
army,  is  under  the  command  of  army  surgeons,  and  forms  part  of  the  army 
sanitary  body. 

The  International  Conference  of  1912  was  agreed  on  the  plan  of  extending 
the  operations  of  the  Red  Cross  to  humanitarian  measures  in  time  of  peace,  not 
only  for  philanthropic  reasons,  but  also  in  order  to  preserve  the  efficiency  of  the 
organization  for  war  purposes.  Great  Britain  alone  held  to  the  strict  war 
services.  In  many  countries  the  Red  Cross  has  done  valuable  services  in  educating- 
the  people  to  the  advantage  and  importance  of  sanitary  measures  and  has  waged 
a  constantly  successful  war  against  such  diseases  as  tuberculosis. 

The  Italians  have  taken  up  the  work  of  the  Red  Cross  with  enthusiasm.  It 
is  marvelously  well  organized,  down  to  the  smallest  towns,  is  supported  with 
great  generosity,  and  does  an  immense  amount  of  relief  work  in  connection  with 
the  poor.  The  Austrian  Red  Cross  follows  the  Italian  organization  to  a  great 
extent,  while  the  French  incline  more  to  Russian  lines,  which  permit  a  more 
mobile  organization.  In  Russia  the  Red  Cross  met  with  great  popular  favor,  and 
early  assumed  more  importance  and  influence  than  in  other  countries.  The 
government  subsidizes  it,  granting  it  many  privileges,  and  the  Dowager  Empress 
Marie  donates  considerable  sums  to  it.  In  Germany  the  Red  Cross  takes  on  a 
more  military  aspect,  being  more  directly  associated  with  the  army  medical  corps. 
Imbued  with  the  German  spirit  for  accuracy,  detail  and  precision,  the  organization 
has  a  special  efficiency  and  carries  its  military  order  into  the  struggles  against 
tuberculosis,  in  which  it  has  been  very  successful.  The  British  Red  Cross  devel- 
oped more  slowly,  but  in  the  South  African  war  did  good  service,  and  since  then 
has  been  carefully  organized.  The  Russo-Japanese  War  awoke  the  spirit  of 
devotion  and  service  in  the  Japanese,  and  the  work  of  the  Red  Cross  in  the  field 
was  highly  praised.  Since  the  war  a  Red  Cross  association  has  been  attached  to 
every  hospital. 


XII 


A   MODERN    EQUii'xMEXT   OF  THE    RED   CROSS 


S.  S.  "RED  CROSS' 


THE  AMERICAN  NATIONAL  RED  CROSS 


The  American  Association  of  the  Red  Cross,  was  founded  by  Clara  Barton,, 
the  famous  Civil  War  nurse.  It  numbered  about  a  dozen  nurses,  and  developed 
very  slowly.  Miss  Barton  early  perceived  the  need  of  a  trained  organization, 
national  in  scope  and  permanent  in  character,  which  could  have  a  wider  career 
of  usefulness  than  mere  war  service,  and  render  assistance  in  times  of  disaster. 
Under  her  influence  the  Red  Cross  gradually  extended  their  operations  to  include 
relief  and  preventative  measures  in  time  of  peace,  an  idea  which  had  great  popular 
appeal.  Hence  in  1905,  Congress  passed  an  act  incorporating  the  American 
National  Red  Cross,  declaring  its  purpose  (aside  from  duties  in  war)  to  be  to 
continue  and  carry  on  a  system  of  national  and  international  relief  in  time  of 
peace,  and  apply  the  same  to  mitigate  the  suffering  caused  by  pestilence,  lire  and 
flood.  It  now  has  about  3,500  trained  nurses,  all  with  three  years'  hospital 
experience.  They  hold  themselves  in  instant  readiness  to  respond  to  the  call 
of  the  Red  Cross,  in  war  or  peace,  during  special  emergencies,  such  as  the  San 
Francisco  earthquake,  the  Titanic  disaster  and  the  Ohio  floods  of  1912.  In  the 
last  instance  more  nurses  applied  than  could  be  used. 

The  governing  body  consists  of  a  central  committee  (18  members),  the 
chairman  and  five  members  of  which  are  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States.  The  remaining  members  are  elected  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  society. 
There  are  three  relief  boards :  War,  National  and  International ;  each  State 
has  a  board  (3  to  10  members),  appointed  by  the  Chairman  of  the  Central 
Committee,  and  the  Governor  of  the  State  is  chairman  of  this  board.  Local 
organizations,  called  chapters,  are  formed  in  over  a  hundred  cities,  the  duty  of 
which  is  to  collect  funds  and  supplies.  Charitable  organizations  may  enroll  as 
"institutional  members,"  and  any  citizen  of  the  United  States  is  eligible  for 
membership. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  present  European  War,  the  Red  Cross  equipped  a 
supply  ship  for  the  relief  of  the  wounded  and  sick.  Under  the  rules  of  the 
Genevan  and  Hague  agreements,  a  ship  of  this  nature  is  permitted  to  enter  any 
harbor,  but  the  S.  S.  "Red  Cross"  will  not  proceed  to  German  or  Russian 
harbors,  and  it  is  stated  that  supplies  for  those  countries  will  be  sent  overland 
through  the  lines.  At  the  time  of  the  Messina  earthquake,  the  Red  Cross  also- 
sent  a  supply  ship,  which  was  of  immense  help. 


Austria  -  Hungary 


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FRANCIS  JOSEPH  THE  FIRST 


The  Hapsburg 
Family 


THE  ARCHDUKE  CARL  FRANCIS  JOSEPH,  HEIR  TO  THE  THRONE, 
HIS  WIFE,  THE  ARCHDUCHESS  ZITA,  AND  THEIR  TWO  CHILDREN 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


THE  LATE  EMPRESS  ELIZABETH,  CONSORT  OF  FRANCIS  JOSEPH 


EMPEROR       MAXIMIL- 
IAN,     BROTHER      OF 
FRANCIS     JOSEPH ; 
KILLED    BY    THE 
MEXICANS 


CHARLOTTE.  WIFE 
OF     MAXMILIAN 


THE   LATE   ARCHDUKE  RU- 
DOLF.    ONLY     SON     OF 
FRANCIS  JOSEPH 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


FRANCIS  JOSEPH  I 

Francis  Joseph  I  (born  1830), 
Emperor  of  Austria,  King  of  Bohemia 
and  Apostolic  King  of  Hungary,  is  the 
eldest  son  of  Archduke  Francis  (son 
of  Francis  I)  and  Archduchess  Sophie, 
Princess  of  Bavaria.  On  the  abdica- 
tion of  his  uncle,  Ferdinand  I,  on  De- 
cember 2,  1848,  Francis  Joseph  became 
Emperor.  His  accession  took  place  in 
the  midst  of  revolution  in  Italy  and 
Hungary.  The  Emperor  personally 
entered  the  Hungarian  campaign,  and, 
aided  by  Russia,  subdued  Hungary, 
while  his  army  quelled  the  Italian  in- 
surgents. Following  the  subjugation  of 
Hungary,  the  most  reactionary  meas- 
ures were  carried  out,  the  rights  of  na- 
tionalities ignored,  and  a  bureaucratic 
centralization  was  restored.  But  neither 
Italy  nor  Hungary  was  conquered.  The 
Emperor  then  waged  a  successful  war 
with  Prussia  against  Denmark,  but  in  a 
dispute  over  the  spoils  the  allies  en- 
gaged in  a  war  which  ended  by  Aus- 
tria's crushing  defeat  at  Sadowa 
(Konigsgratz)  in  1866. 
The  Empress  Elizabeth  (daughter  of  Duke  Maximilian  of  jtfavaria),  whom 
Francis  Joseph  had  married  in  1854,  was  murdered  in  1898,  and  on  the  death 
of  the  Emperor's  only  son  Rudolf  in  1899,  Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand  (son  of 
Archduke  Karl  Ludwig,  the  Emperor's  nephew),  became  heir  to  the  crown.  But 
he  and  the  Achduchess  (Countess  Sophie  Chotek)  were  assassinated  on  June 
28,  1914,  and  since  Francis  Ferdinand  had  renounced  at  marriage  the  rights  of 
the  future  children  to  the  crown,  the  succession  passed  to  the  Emperor's  nephew, 
Karl  Francis  Joseph  (born  August  17,  1887;  married  Princess  Zita  of  Parma 
on  October  21,  191 1).    The  Archduke  and  Archduchess  have  two  children. 

Francis  Joseph  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  figures  of  Europe  by  reason 
of  his  great  age  and  ability  to  hold  together  the  diverse  races  of  his  empire. 
He  is  distinguished  by  his  personal  love  for  his  people,  his  sterling  sense  of  justice, 
charm  and  frankness  of  manner,  his  sense  of  duty  and  responsibility  to  his  people, 
and  the  democratic  manner  with  which  he  receives  the  visits  of  prince  and 
peasant  alike.  His  love  for  and  generosity  to  the  poor  have  won  for  him  the 
title  of  "Our  Franz." 

A  singular  fatality  seems  to  have  followed  this  house,  and  the  reign  of 
Emperor  Francis  Joseph  has  seen  the  culmination  of  the  tragedies  that  have 
fallen  upon  the  family.  The  Emperor  was  barely  on  the  throne  five  years,  when 
the  knife  of  an  assassin  inflicted  a  serious  wound,  a  sinister  omen  of  what  was 
to  come.  His  brother,  Maximilian,  accepted  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Mexico, 
only  to  fall  a  victim  on  June  16,  1867.  Archduke  William  Francis  fell  from  his 
horse  in  1894  and  died  from  the  injuries  then  received.  Archduke  John  of 
Tuscany  renounced  his  rank,  and  under  the  name  of  John  Orth,  disappeared 
with  his  yacht  off  the  coast  of  South  America  and  was  never  heard  of.  His 
cousin  and  two  of  his  sisters-in-law  met  violent  deaths.  His  son,  the  Crown 
Prince  Rudolf,  was  found  dead  in  his  castle  at  Meyerling  on  Jan.  30,  1889,  and 
the  assassination  of  his  wife  and  nephew  summed  up  the  story  of  his  sorrows. 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


THE  LATE  ARCHDUKE  FERDINAND  AND  HIS  FAMILY 
THE  ASSASSINATION   OF  THE  ARCHDUKE  AND  THE  ARCHDUCHESS 
LED  TO   THE  PRESENT   EUROPEAN   SITUATION 

HOUSE  OF  HAPSBURG 
The  Hapsburg  family  takes  its  name  from  Castle  Hapsburg  in  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Argau,  and  the  title  of  Count  of  Hapsburg  was  first  assumed  by 
Werner  I  (d.  1096).  Count  Rudolf  was  elected  Emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  in  1273.  He  acquired  Austria,  and  became  the  founder  of  the  imperial 
line  (See  History  of  Austria),  which  has  given  sovereigns  to  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire,  Austria  and  Spain,  and  is  connected  with  nearly  every  royal  house  in 
Europe.  Through  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  Maria  Theresa  was  enabled  to  assume 
the  government  on  the  extinction  of  the  male  line,  and  in  1745  her  husband, 
Duke  Franz  of  Lorraine-Tuscany,  was  elected  emperor;  thus  was  founded  the 
present  imperial  house  of  Hapsburg-Lorraine.  The  story  of  the  Hapsburgs  is 
virtually  that  of  Austria  from  the  13th  century. 


THE  CROWN  PRINCE  AND  HIS  SOX 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


HISTORY 

Austria  was  first  inhabited  by  the  Taurisci  (a 
Celtic  people,  then  successively  by  the  Norici  (who 
were  conquered  by  the  Romans  about  14  B.  C), 
the  Boii,  Vandals,  Goths,  Huns,  Longobards  and 
Avars.  Charlemagne  expelled  the  latter,  and  made 
the  territory  a  margraviate,  called  the  Eastern  mark 
or  Ostreich.  The  Hungarians  invaded  in  900,  but 
were  conquered  (955)  by  Emperor  Otto  I,  who 
reunited  Ostreich  with  the  German  realm.  The 
Emperor  appointed  (983)  Leopold  of  Babenberg 
as  margrave.  This  prince  conquered  a  large  por- 
tion of  Hungary,  and  under  his  successors  more 
territory  was  added,  and  the  margraviate  received 
important  privileges  and  was  made  a  duchy.  On 
the  extinction  of  the  Babenberg  house  in  1246, 
Ottokar,  King  of  Bohemia,  after  some  fighting  ob- 
tained the  Austrian  lands ;  to  these  he  added  Styria 
(by  conquest  in  1260)  and  Carinthia  and  Carniola 
(by  inheritance  in  1269).  But  in  the  war  brought 
on  (1276)  by  his  refusal  to  recognize  Emperor 
Rudolf  of  Hapsburg,  he  was  defeated,  and  Rudolf  gave  Austria,  Styria  and 
Carinthia  in  fief  to  his  sons  Albert  and  Rudolf,  thus  laying  the  foundation  of  the 
future  greatness  of  the  Hapsburgs.  Under  the  Hapsburg  policy  Austria  grew 
in  power.  Albert  HI  acquired  the  Tyrol;  Albert  V  secured  Hungary  and 
Bohemia,  and,  by  his  marriage  with  the  daughter,  .pf  Emperor  Sigismund,  was 
elected  Emperor  in  1438.  From  this  time  the  !|Iapsburgs  held  the  imperial  crown, 
excepting  for  one  short  period,  until  the  downfall  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  in 
1806.  With  Ladislas,  Albert's  son,  the  Austria.n  Hapsburg  line  became  extinct 
(1457),  ^^^  its  possessions  went  to  the  Styrianline.  Under  Frederick  HI  Austria 
was  made  an  archduchy,  and  through  the  marriage  of  Maximilian  I  with  Mary 
of  Burgundy  the  Netherlands  were  acquired  in  1477.  ^^  15^6  a  Hapsburg 
succeeded  to  the  Spanish  throne,  in  the  person  of  Charles  I  (son  of  Philip  the 
Fair  and  Joanna  of  Castile  and  grandson  of  Maximilian  I  of  Austria).  In  1519 
this  Charles  became  German  Emperor  as  Charles  V.  In  1521  he  resigned  the 
Austrian  possessions  to  his  brother,  Archduke  Ferdinand,  and  Ferdinand, 
through  his  marriage,  became  King  of  Bohemia  arid  was  chosen  by  the  nobles 
King  of  Hungary.  But  the  National  Party  chose  another  candidate,  and,  owing 
to  the  great  wars  for  the  succession,  in  which  Turkey  aided  Hungary,  Austria  did 
not  obtain  undisputed  possession  of  Hungary  until  the  i8th  century.  In  1556 
Charles  V  abdicated  in  favor  of  Ferdinand.  Ferdinand  II  during  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  made  a  last  fruitless  attempt  to  brirtg  all  Germany  under  Austrian 
rule,  and  succeeding  rulers,  realizing  the  impossibility  of  such  a  plan,  hav** 
devoted  themselves  to  purely  Austrian  interests.  Leopold  I,  by  his  severity, 
provoked  the  Hungarian  rebellion,  and  in  1687  forced  the  Hungarians  to  make 
their  kingdom  hereditary  in  the  Hapsburg  family.  Prince  Eugene  forced  the 
Turks  to  resign  (1690)  the  country  between  the  Danube  and  the  Theiss,  and 
Austria  also  obtained  Transylvania. 

The  claims  of  Archduke  Charles  brought  Austria  into  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  and  from  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  (1714)  she  received  the 
Spanish  Netherlands,  Milan,  Mantua,  Naples  and  Sicily.  Then  followed  periods 
of  curtailment.  By  the  Peace  of  Vienna  (1736),  Naples  and  Sicily  went  to  Spain 
and  part  of  Milan  to  Sardinia  in  return  for  Parma  and  Piacenza ;  by  the  Peace 


10  THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


of  Belgrade  (1739),  Belgrade,  the  adjoining  Servian  lands,  and  the  Austrian 
parts  of  Wallachia  and  Bosnia  went  to  Turkey ;  by  the  Austrian  Succession  War 
(which  broke  out  when  Maria  Theresa  assumed  the  government,  the  male  line 
having  become  extinct  in  1740),  Prussia  obtained  Silesia;  and  by  the  Peace  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  Austria  lost  Parma,  Piacenza  and  Guastalla.  The  Seven  Years' 
War,  and  Maria  Theresa's  fruitless  attempt  to  regain  Silesia,  drained  Austria's 
blood,  and  the  years  following  were  devoted  to  fostering  industry  and  commerce, 
encouraging  education  and  improving  the  condition  of  the  serfs.  These  reforms 
were  carried  on  by  Joseph  II,  who,  however,  in  his  zeal  disregarded  national 
prejudices,  and  thereby  provoked  the  revolt  in  the  Netherlands  and  aroused 
discontent  in  Hungary.  In  the  first  partition  of  Poland  Austria  acquired  Galicia 
and  Lodomeria,  and  the  Porte  ceded  Bukowina  in  1777. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  which  closed  Austria's  war  with  France 
(1792-97),  Austria  lost  the  Netherlands  and  Lombardy,  but  acquired  Venetian 
Istria  and  Dalmatia.  In  1804  the  Emperor  declared  himself  hereditary  Emperor 
of  Austria,  taking  the  title  of  Kaiser,  and  united  all  his  dominions  in  one  empire. 
The  war  of  1805  against  Napoleon  resulted  in  the  disastrous  defeat  at  Austerlitz 
and  the  Treaty  of  Pressburg,  by  which  Austria  lost  Venice,  Istria,  Dalmatia,  the 
Tyrol  and  part  of  Suabia.  Following  this  treaty  came  the  establishment  of  the 
Rhine  Confederation  and  the  abolition  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  when  the 
Hapsburgs  lost  their  title  of  500  years. 

Austria's  heroic  attempt  in  1809  to  defeat  Napoleon  was  crushed  in  the 
battle  of  Wagram,  and  the  Peace  of  Vienna  deprived  her  of  part  of  her  hereditary 
dominions.  In  1812,  after  the  close  of  the  successful  war  of  the  anti-Napoleon 
coalition,  Austria  regained  Lombardy,  her  Venetian  territory,  the  Tyrol  and 
the  possessions  taken  by  Napoleon  in  1809.  During  the  restoration  period  she 
played  an  important  part  in  German  politics,  exercised  the  presidency  of  the 
re-organized  German  Confederation,  and  joined  the  Holy  Alliance.  Her  state- 
man.  Prince  Metternich,  stifled  every  constitutional  movement,  and  repressed 
every  aspiration  toward  nationality  of  the  peoples  composing  the  heterogeneous 
Austrian  domains.  Through  this  policy  revolutions  in  Lombardy  and  Hungary 
were  provoked,  which,  however,  were  quelled,  Russia  aiding  in  the  subjugation 
of  Hungary.  The  war  with  Prussia  ended  with  the  Austrian  defeat  at  Sadowa 
(Konigsgratz,  1866),  and  Austria  had  to  cede  Venetia  to  Italy;  the  war  with  Italy 
(1859)  with  the  loss  of  Lombardy.  The  relations  of  Austria  and  Hungary  were 
then  settled,  and  in  June,  1867,  Francis  Joseph  I  was  crowned  King  of  Hungary. 
The  dual  monarchy  of  Austria-Hungary  thus  came  into  being.  During  the  last 
half    century   Austrian   statesmen   have  devoted   their  attention   mainly  to  the 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


11 


commercial  development  of  their  country,  while  earnestly  endeavoring  to  fuse 
into  one  nation  the  numerous  peoples  grouped  within  the  boundaries  of  the 
Dual  Monarchy. 

According  to  the  Ausgleich  (or  Compromise)  made  in  1867,  Austria  and 
Hungary  have  each  a  separate  constitution  and  a  separate  parliament,  but  con- 
federate for  imperial  purposes  (army,  navy  and  finance  affairs)  and  for  the 
conduct  of  foreign  affairs.  Legislative  power  relating  to  common  affairs  (includ- 
ing the  voting  of  money)  is  exercised  by  the  Parliaments  of  both  states,  but  the 
duty  of  examining  the  requirements  of  the  common  services  is  entrusted  to  the 
Delegations,  of  which  there  are  two.  The  members  of  the  Delegations  are  ap- 
pointed for  one  year,  and  are  summoned  annually  by  the  emperor  alternately  at 
Vienna  and  Budapest. 

The  constitution  of  Hungary  dates  from  about  891,  when  the  Magyars  had 
possession,  and  the  first  King,  St.  Stephen,  was  crowned  in  1000.  The  first  charter 
{Bulla  Aurea),  granted  in  1222  by  King  Andrew  II,  defined  the  government 
as  an  aristocratic  monarchy.  After  having  been  repeatedly  suspended  and  even 
forfeited   (1849),  the  Hungarian  Constitution  was  restored  in  1867. 

Austria  has  an  area  of  115,882  sq.  miles  and  a  population  of  28,995,844.  The 
population  is  divided  among  Germans  (about  9,000,000),  Bohemians  (6,000,000), 
Poles  (4,000,000),  Ruthenians  (3,000,000),  Slovenes  (1,000,000),  Serbs  and  Croa- 
tians  (800,000),  Italians  and  Ladin  (800,000),  Roumanians  (300,000),  Magyars 
(10,000)  and  Greeks,  French,  etc.  Half  the  population  is  engaged  in  agriculture, 
and  about  200,000  in  mining. 

Hungary  includes  an  area  of  125,609  sq.  miles,  and  has  a  population  (includ- 
ing Croatia  and  Slavonia)  of  21,030,000.  The  population  is  divided  among 
Magyars  (about  9,000,000),  Germans  (2,000,000),  Slovaks  (2,000,000),  Rouma- 
nians (3,000,000),  Croatians  (1,000,000),  Serbs  and  various  foreign  residents. 
68.4  per  cent,  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  agriculture ;  12.8  per  cent,  in  manu- 
facturing, and  mining  employs  about  80,000.  The  exports  from  Austria-Hungary 
in  1913  amounted  to  $575,625,000,  and  the  imports  to  $707,065,000. 

Liechtenstein,  a  principality  between  Austrian  Tyrol  and  the  Rhine  (area, 
65  sq.  miles ;  population,  9,500)  is  administered  directly  from  Vienna. 

Bosnia-Herzegovina  (area,  19,768  sq.  miles;  population  1,962,411)  is  admin- 
istered by  Austria-Hungary,  having  been  formally  annexed  to  the  Empire  in 
1908. 


DRAGOONS 


12 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


COUNT   VON    BERCHTHOLD 

AUSTRIAN-HUNGARIAN 
FOREIGN  MINISTER 


BARON     KONRAD     von 

HOTZENDORF.  CHIEF 

OF  THE  AUSTRIAN 

STAFF 


GENERAL  RITTER  VON  KROBAT- 
KIN,  MINISTER  OF  WAR 


ADMIRAL  VON  HAUS,  INSPECTOR 
OF  THE  NAVY 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


13 


HUSSARS 


THE  ARMY 


The  Landsknecht  infantry  was  the  mainstay  of  the  imperial  armies  in  the 
1 6th  century.  Rudolph  H  formed  a  standing  force  about  1600,  but  relied 
upon  the  enlistment  system  for  the  bulk  of  his  armies.  The  Thirty  Years' 
Wars  (1618-1648)  produced  the  permanence  of  service  which  led  to  the  rise 
of  standing  armies,  and  at  its  close  Austria  had  19  infantry,  6  cuirassier  and  1 
dragoon  regiments.  Wallenstein  was  the  first  to  raise  a  distinctly  imperial  army 
owing  no  duty  but  to  the  sovereign. 

The  wars  of  Austria  against  France  and  the  Turks,  together  with  the  two 
Turkish  Wars  and  the  three  great  struggles  against  Frederick  the  Great,  led  to  a 
continuous  increase  in  her  army  and  the  long  period  of  active  service  caused  the 
development  of  its  organization.  Thanks  to  this  training  Austria  could  oppose 
the  French  Revolutionary  forces  (1792)  as  their  most  formidable  enemy,  and 
prove  its  efficiency  in  such  a  battle  as  that  of  Neerwinden  (1793).  But  after 
Napoleon's  victories,  the  army  lost  confidence  in  itself,  as  well  as  its  leaders, 
and  in  the  whole  system  under  which  it  was  trained.  This  old  system  was, 
however,  abohshed  after  1805,  and  a  new  one  was  reconstructed  on  French  lines 
bry  Archduke  Charles.  Although  the  re-organization  was  not  yet  completed, 
Austria  entered  the  War  of  Liberation  with  well-drilled  armies  exceedingly 
greater  in  numbers  than  those  of  the  Wars  of  the  Revolution. 


14 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


FIFTY  YEARS  AGO:     FIELD-MARSHAL  AND  HIS  STAFF 


CAVALRY  IN  NAPOLEON'S  TIME 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


15 


INFANTRY  AND  JAGER 


After  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  Austria's  hold  on  Italy  necessitated  the  main- 
tenance of  a  large  army  of  occupation.  This  army,  particularly  its  cavalry,  was 
admittedly  the  best  in  Europe.  Following  that  time  (1845-1850)  the  army  was 
employed  in  dynastic  wars,  and  the  conscription  was  modified  by  substitution. 
When  the  war  of  1859  resulted  unfavorably,  the  army  lost  confidence  as  it  had 
done  in  1805.  The  result  of  the  war  and  of  the  constitutional  changes  of  this 
time  was  the  readoption  of  the  principles  of  1806-13,  the  substitution  of  con- 
scription and  long  service  by  universal  service  for  3  years,  and  a  thorough 
reform  in  the  methods  of  command  and  staff  work.  University  graduates  serve 
only  one  year,  and  usually  form  the  officers  of  the  reserve  force. 

Austria-Hungary  maintains  a  common  army  (K.  und  K.)  which  is  derived 
from  both  kingdoms,  and  which  has  a  common  organization.  The  special  or 
second  line  armies  (K.  K.)  are  the  Landwehr  in  Austria  and  the  Honved  in 
Hungary,  which  are  fully  organized  in  time  of  peace,  and  are  on  a  national 
basis,  and  the  Landsturm  (composed  of  older  men).  Certain  parts  of  the  Em- 
pire (as  in  Bosnia-Herzegovina)  maintain  special  recruiting  service  and  enlist 
independent  troops  under  their  own  regulations.  On  July  1,  1912,  a  law  was 
passed  providing  for  re-organization  increase  in  the  army.  Military  service  is 
compulsory    from    the    age    of    21    to    42,    and    the    soldier    spends    2    years 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


17 


UHLAN 

in  the  active  army  (3  in  the  cavalry  and  artillery),  10  in  the  reserve  and  9  in  the 
Landsturm.     The  Empire  is  divided  into  16  army  corps,  as  follows : 

K.  und  K.       K.  K.     Honved 

Infantry    regiments    102         .7)7  32 

Bosnia  Herzegovina   4 

Tyrolean  Chasseurs    4 

FeldjagerbatalHons 26  •; 

Landesschiitzen    3 

Total n36  40  Tl 

Cavalry  regiments 

Uhlans    11  6 

Hussars    16  10 

Dragoons    15 

Tyrolean .  1 

Dalmatian 1 

Total 7^2  ~8  10 

Artillery  regiments 

Fortress  14  } 106  16  2 

Divisions      8 

Total   J06  16  10 


18 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


EIGHTEEXTH   CENTURY   SOLDIERS 

The  peace  strength  of  the  army,  as  organized  in  1913,  is:  Common  army, 
339,366;  Austrian  I^ndwehr,  50,544;  Hungarian  Honved,  38,529;  Bosnian- 
Herzegovina  troops,  6,618.  The  war  strength  as  provided  for  by  the  law  of 
1913  is:  Common  army,  1,360,000;  Austrian  Landwehr,  240,000;  Honved, 
220,000;  total,  1,820,000.  This  total  could  be  increased  to  well  over  3,000,000 
by  utilizing  all  classes  of  the  Landsturm,  including  trained  and  untrained  men. 
Austria-Hungary's  expenditure  for  armament  during  1913-14  amounted  to 
$172,939,606. 


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AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


21 


ARTILLERY:     AN  8  CENTIMETRE  FIELD  PIECE 


ENGINEERS      BUILD- 
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TRANSPORT    OF 
TROOPS 


HIS    MAJESTY'S 
LIFE  GUARDS 


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AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


23 


BOSNIAN  HERZEGOVINAN  INFANTRY 


INFANTRY   ON   PARADE 


ARTILLERY:     10  CENTIMETRE  HOWITZERS 


24 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


WINTER  MANOEUVRES  OF  THE  INFANTRY 


THE   EMPEROR  AND   GENERAL   STAFF 


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AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


27 


A  REST  AFTER  MANOEUVRING 


.-•^->.^V"' 


HUSSAR   OFFICERS 


28 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


BLESSING  THE   SWORDS 


Before  the  cadets  are  promoted  to  the  rank  of  officers  in  the  army,  the  chaplain 
of  the  Military  Academy  extends  to  them  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  God  and  Kaiser, 
and  they  solemnly  pledge  themselves  to  the  service  of  the  Fatherland. 


1.  Order  of  the  Golden  Fleece.  2.  Order  of  the  Star.  3.  Cross  of  Honor. 
4.  Order  of  St.  Stephen.  5.  Order  of  Elizabeth  Theresa.  6.  Order  of  Maria  Theresa. 
7.  Order  of  the  Iron  Crown.  8.  Teutonic  Order.  9.  Iron  Crown  and  Cross.  10.  Order 
of  Leopold.     11.  Order  of  Elizabeth. 


THE  NAVY 


Although  of  all  the  great  European 
powers  Austria  has  the  shortest  coastline, 
consisting  of  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Adri- 
atic, its  navy  is  in  power  of  its  fighting 
ships  7th  in  rank  among  the  navies  of  the 
world.  It  was  organized  chiefly  for  coast 
defence,  and  for  many  years  no  important 
new  vessels  were  added.  In  1893  the  ar- 
mored cruiser  Kaiserin  Maria  Theresa  was 
launched,  and  three  small  battleships  were 
commenced.  Since  then  the  annual  builc 
mg  programme  has  steadily  increased.  As 
re-organized  in  1901,  the  navy  department 
forms  an  autonomous  section  in  the  minis- 
try of  war,  under  the  control  of  a  vice 
admiral ;  An  Admiral  is  inspector-in-chief  of 
the  fleet  aod  entire  navy  and  represents  the 


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30 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


FIRST   CLASS   CRUISER  "ADMIRAL  SPAUN' 


minister  of  war  in  the  discussions  of  the  navy  budget.  EnHstment  is  by  conscrip- 
tion for  a  term  of  4  years ;  university  graduates  serve  only  one  year  and  usually 
become  officers  of  the  reserve  force. 

In  addition  to  the  coast  defence,  there  is  a  flotilla  of  monitors  in  the  Danube. 
The  fleet,  which  is  maintained  in  a  high  state  of  efficiency,  has  a  strength  of: 

Effective  end  of 
1913       1914 

Dreadnoughts    2  3 

Pre-dreadnoughts    12  12 

Armored  cruisers   3  3 

Cruisers    9  11 

Torpedo  gunboats 7  7 

Gunboats  for  the  Danube  6  8 

Torpedo  boats   for  the  Danube    8  8 

Destroyers    18  18 

Torpedo  boats 58  63 

Submarines    6  6 

Hydroplanes 22  50 

The  personnel  of  the  navy  consists  of:  907  officers  and  cadets;  1,513 
mechanics,  engineers,  etc. ;  about  18,000  sailors  ;  the  grand  total,  including  reserves, 
amounts  to  37,000.  There  are  naval  air  services  of  hydro-aeroplanes  at  Pola, 
Sebenico  and  Cattaro.  The  navy  expenditure  for  1913-14  amounted  to  $33,002,- 
755,  an  increase  of  143.2  per  cent  over  that  of  1907-08. 


CRUISER  "MARIA  THERESA' 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


31 


THE   LATE   ARCHDUKE    FRANCIS   FERDINAND   ON   BOARD   THE 

FLAGSHIP 


BATTI.ESHll'   "BUDAPEST" 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


33 


BATTLESHIP  "ERZEHERZOG 
FRANCIS  FERDINAND" 


SUBMARINE   "V  5' 


MONITOR  OF  THE 
DANUBE  FLEET 


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BATTLESHIP "HAPSBURG" 


BATTLESHIP  "ERZEHERZOG  CARL' 


36 


THE   EUROPEAN  WAR 


COAST  TORPEDO   BOAT   "NO.   13" 


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38 


THE   EUROPEAN   WAR 


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UNDER  OFFICERS  AND  MARINES 


The 
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GEORGE  V 


KING  GEORGE  AND  QUEEN  MARY 


44 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


GEORGE  V 
Prince  George  Frederick  Ernest  Albert,  the  second  son  of  King  Edward  VII 
and  Queen  Alexandra,  was  born  on  June  3,  1865.  He  entered  the  navy  when 
twelve  years  old,  and  was  successively  promoted  to  the  ranks  of  midshipman 
(1883),  lieutenant  (1885),  and  commander  (1891).  On  the  death  of  the  Duke 
of  Clarence  (1892)  he  became  heir  to  the  throne,  and  took  his  seat  in  the  House 
of  Lords  as  Duke  of  York.  His  marriage  was  celebrated  on  July  6,  1893,  to 
Princess  Victoria  Mary  of  Teck,  known  as  Princess  May,  who  had  been  be- 
trothed to  the  Duke  of  Clarence.  In  1901  he  attained  the  rank  of  rear  admiral 
and  was  appointed  Colonel-in-chief  of  the  Royal  Marine  Forces.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Edward  VII,  Prince  George  left  the  navy  and  assumed  certain  duties 
of  state.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  May  6,  1910.  Through  his  influence 
the  Accession  Act  of  1910  was  passed,  which  omitted  from  the  accession  declara- 


THE  PRINCE  OF  WALES 

tion  the  phrases  long  resented  by  Catholics.  During  his  visit  to  India  (Dec, 
1911),  important  changes  were  made  in  the  Indian  administrative  system,  and 
the  capital  was  transferred  from  Calcutta  to  Delhi. 


ENGLAND 


THE  LATE  KING  EDWARD  VII  AND  QUEEN  ALEXANDRA 

Their  majesties  have  six  children:  Prince  Edward  Albert  (born  on  June 
23,  1894),  the  heir  apparent,  is  now  serving  at  the  front  with  his  regiment;  Prince 
Albert  Frederick  (born  Dec.  14,  1895),  is  serving  with  the  fleet  in  the  North  Sea; 
Princess  Mary,  the  only  daughter  (born  April  25,  1897)  ;  Prince  Henry  William 
(bom  March  31,  1900)  ;  Prince  George  Edward  (born  Dec.  20,  1912)  ;  and 
Prince  John  Charles  (born  July  12,  1905). 

KING  EDWARD 

While  Prince  of  Wales,  King  Edward  became  very  popular  with  his  peo- 
ple, and  won  a  reputation  as  a  diplomat  and  peacemaker.  At  his  accession,  he 
directed  his  efforts  to  maintain  the  existing  peace  of  Europe  and  by  advantageous 
alliances  sought  to  strengthen  the  foreign  relations  of  his  country.  He  greatly 
admired  the  French,  spending  much  of  his  time  at  Paris,  and  to  his  personal  ef- 
forts were  due  the  cordial  relations  between  England  and  France  and  the  for- 
mation of  the  Triple  Entente, 


46 


THE   EUROPEAN   WAR 


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GEORGE  V  AND  THE  LATE  EDWARD  VII 


PRINCESS  MARY 


PRINCE  ALBERT  FREDERICK 


PRINCE  HENRY   WILLIAM 


HOUSE  OF  GUELPH 


About  the  middle  of  the  5th  century  the 
name  Weph  or  Guelph,  first  occurs,  such  be- 
ing the  title  of  the  leader  of  the  Scyrri,  a 
Gothic  tribe,  which  was  then  in  possession  of 
Noricum  (ancient  Rhoetia).  In  590  a  Guelph 
commanded  the  Boiararii  under  Childebert, 
King  of  the  Franks,  but  for  a  century  after- 
wards the  name  occurs  chiefly  among  the 
Bavarian  nation,  the  nobles  of  Lombardy  and 
the  court  of  France. 

Guelph  IV  married  Irmitrude,  daughter 
of  Frederick  of  Luxemburg,  and  niece  of 
Cunigonde,  Empress  of  Henry  II.  His  son  re- 
ceived from  Emperor  Henry  III  the  Duchy 
of  Carinthia  and  the  Marquisate  of  Verona, 
but  with  him  the  male  line  died  out.  His 
nephew  became  the  founder  of  the  younger 
line.  Henry  the  Black  succeeded  to  the 
GEORGE  I  Guelph  possessions  in  11 20,  and  by  his  mar- 

riage with  Wufilda,  eldest  daughter  of  the 
Magnus  of  Saxony,  obtained  half  of  the  latter's  hereditary  dominions,  including 
Liineburg.  His  son,  Henry  the  Proud,  married  the  daughter  of  the  Emperor 
Lothair,  thereby  obtaining  lands  in  Brunswick  and  the  Duchy  of  Saxony.  The 
consequent  power  brought  the  Guelphs  into  rivalry  with  the  Hohenstaufens  and 
led  to  the  long  strife  with  the  Ghibellines. 

Henry  the  Lion  lost  the  Duchies  of  Bavaria  and  Saxony  in  1180,  and  Welf 
VI  gave  his  Suabian  and  Italian  lands  to  the  Emperor  Henry  VI.  Otto  only 
had  left  the  lands  inherited  from  Lothair,  and  in  1235  these  lands  became  the 
Duchy  of  Brunswick,  and  Otto  received  the  title  of  Duke  of  Brunswick  and 
Liineburg.  Of  the  Brunswick  Guelphs,  the  Liineburg  line,  in  the  person  of 
George,  joined  the  Protestant  cause,  and  his  son.  Christian  Louis,  received  the 
Duchy  of  Liineburg,  and  his  second  son,  George  William,  the  principality  of 
Calemberg,  which  was  then  formed  into  a  duchy.  George  William  took  up  his 
residence  in  the  capital  of  this  province  and  assumed  the  title  of  Duke  of  Han- 
over. His  brother,  Ernest  Augustus,  eventually  succeeded  him  and  married 
Sophia,  daughter  of  the  Elector  Palatine  and  Elizabeth  Stuart,  daughter  of 
James  I  of  England.  By  the  Act  of  Settlement  (1701)  the  English  throne  was 
to  go  to  the  Electress  Sophia,  but  as  she  died  shortly  before  Queen  Anne,  it  went 
instead  to  her  son  George  Louis,  who  became  King  George  I  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.     George  V  is  his  great-great-great-great-grandson. 


MONARCHS  OF  THE  HOUSES  OF  STUART  AND  GUELPH 


ENGLAND 


49 


jiilCXiiiTX    <:0i^U^^i'10:^    OiAnvAiVJlUiti^LIA  yj'  JiJ.'t&i.Aj.-lil.S.-t. 


HISTORY 

The  authentic  history  of  England  begins  with  the  invasion  of  JuHus  Csesat 
(54  B.  C),  and  the  country  was  known  to  the  Romans  as  Britannia.  The  coun- 
try was  first  a  Roman  colony,  and  after  being  abandoned  by  the  Romans  (410) 
was  invaded  by  the  Jutes,  Angles  and  Saxons.  During  the  Anglo-Saxon  period, 
England  became  Christian.  Egbert  of  Wessex  united  the  various  kingdoms  and 
assumed  (827)  the  title  of  King  of  England,  but  the  country  was  divided  between 
Alfred  and  the  Danes  in  878  (Treaty  of  Wedmore),  only  to  be  consolidated  again 
in  the  10th  century.  About  1000  the  Danes  under  Sweyn  invaded  England,  and 
Canute  the  Dane  and  his  sons  were  rulers  during  1016-42.  With  the  battle  of 
Hastings  (1066)  and  the  coming  of  the  Normans,  England  was  conquered  for  the 
last  time.  During  the  Norman  period,  feudalism  was  established,  the  language 
was  modified,  and  art  and  literature  began. 

In  1215  the  barons  wrung  from  King  John  the  famous  Magna  Charta,  the 
foundation  of  English  liberty,  and  Parliamentary  government  began  about  1264. 
The  claims  of  Edward  III  to  the  French  throne  started  the  Hundred  Years'  War 
(1337-1453),  which  ended  by  the  expulsion  of  the  English  from  France.  From 
1453  to  1485,  England  was  torn  by  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  or  the  strife  between 


50  THE   EUROPEAN   WAR 

the  houses  of  Lancaster  and  York,  which  was  ended  by  the  accession  of  the 
Tudors  to  the  throne.  During  the  Tudor  Period  England  became  very  pros- 
perous, and  the  reign  of  EHzabeth  saw  the  birth  of  her  greatest  Hterary  geniuses, 
Spenser,  Bacon,  Shakespeare,  Marlowe,  Fletcher,  Beaumont,  etc.  Under  the 
Stuarts  (1603-1714)  the  foundation  of  the  colonial  empire  was  laid;  and  the  civil 
war  was  waged  between  Charles  I  and  the  Parliament  (1642-48)  which  resulted 
in  the  establishment  of  the  commonwealth  under  Cromwell  (1642-48).  They  also 
saw  the  Restoration  of  the  Monarchy  (1660),  the  Revolution  of  1688,  the  acces- 
sion of  WilHam  of  Orange  and  Mary  (1689),  the  union  with  Scotland  (1707), 
and  the  passing  of  the  Act  of  Settlement  (1701),  which  secured  the  crown  for 
the  Hanoverian  dynasty  (George  I,  1714).  The  Hanoverian  period  is  marked 
by  long  wars  against  France,  the  acquisition  of  India  and  Canada,  the  loss  of 
the  United  States  (1783),  union  with  Ireland  (1801),  the  great  wars  against 
Napoleon  I,  culminating  in  the  battle  of  Waterloo  (1815),  and  the  abolition  of 
slavery  (1833).  Queen  Victoria's  reign  (1837-1901)  saw  the  Crimean  War 
1854-56),  Chinese  Wars  (1856-58  and  1860),  Indian  mutiny  (1857-58),  Trans- 
vaal War  (1881),  occupation  of  Egypt  and  the  Soudan  (1882-85),  and  the  Boer 
War  (1899-1902).  To  Edward  VH  (1901-10)  is  due  the  Triple  Entente,  between 
England,  France  and  Russia,  which  was  formed  to  offset  the  Triple  Alliance 
between  Germany,  Austria  and  Italy. 

The  United  Kingdom  comprises  England,  Ireland  and  Scotland  and  Wales, 
and  embraces  an  area  of  121,090  sq.  miles,  with  a  population  of  45,365,599.  Eng- 
land is  the  first  maritime  power  in  the  world,  and  also  ranks  first  in  commerce 
and  industry  on  account  of  the  richness  of  her  soil,  the  extent  and  variety  of  her 
manufactures  and  her  immense  colonies.  The  great  industries  are  mining  (which 
employs  972,220  persons),  cotton  and  textile  factories  (employing  1,029,000,  of 
whom  600,000  work  at  cotton  spinning)  and  metal  manufactures  (steel,  iron 
and  silver).  According  to  the  1913-1914  reports  the  export  values  amounted  to 
$4,080,000,000  (of  which  73.6  per  cent  was  foreign  and  26.4  per  cent  Inter-im- 
perial), and  the  imports  to  $5,120,000,000. 

The  colonies,  which  are  a  great  source  of  English  wealth,  include: 
Asia:     India   (1767-1858;  1,803,657  sq.  mi.;  pop.  315,156,396),  Ceylon  (1795; 

25,331  sq.  mi. ;  pop.  3,592,833),  Borneo  (1898;  31,106  sq.  mi. ;  pop.  208,183), 

Cyprus  (1878;  3,584  sq.  mi.;  pop.  282,388),  Aden  (1905;  75  sq.  mi.;  pop. 

46,165),  the  key  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  Hong  Kong  (1841;  376  sq.  mi.: 

pop.  366,145). 
Africa:    Union  of  South  Africa  (1909;  473,100  sq.  mi.;  pop.  5,973,394),  British 

East  Africa  ( 1905  ;  246,822  sq.  mi. ;  pop.  4,038,000) ,  and  British  West  Africa 

(1861-1900;  336,080  sq.  mi. ;  pop.  17,100,000)  ;  England  also  exercises  a  pro- 
tectorate over  Egypt. 
America:    The  Dominion  of  Canada  (1763-1867;  3,603,900  sq.  mi.;  pop.  7,206,- 

643),  Newfoundland  (1583-1783;  42.734  sq.  mi.;  pop.  241,172),  West  Indies 

(1655;  90,000  sq.  mi.;  pop.  5,000.000). 
Australasia:     Commonwealth  of  Australia   (1788-1828;  2.974,581  sq.  mi.;  pop. 

4,836,625),    New   Zealand    (1840;    104,760   sq.    mi.;    pop.    1,100,000),   and 

Western  Pacific  (about  24,000  sq.  mi.;  pop.  211,000). 
Europe:    Gibraltar  (1704;  2  sq.  mi. ;  pop.  20,000),  the  key  to  the  Mediterranean: 

Malta   (1814;   120  sq.  mi.;  pop.  211,000). 

The  British  Constitution  provides  for  an  executive  power  vested  in  the  sov- 
ereign and  his  ministers  and  a  legislative  power  vested  in  Parliament,  which  is 
composed  of  the  House  of  Lords  (whose  members  hold  office  by  hereditary 
right  or  are  appointed  by  the  sovereign)  and  the  House  of  Commons  (the  mem- 
bers of  which  are  elected  by  the  people"). 


ENGLAND 


51 


EARL  KITCHENER  OF  KHARTOUAI,  WAR  MINISTER 


RIGHT  HONORABLE  WINSTON  CHURCHILL,  FIRST  LORD  OF  THE 

ADMIRALTY 


^}s^^M^\^i}S^^M'S[i((^im^^^^ 


THE  ARMY 


Until  the  Norman  Conquest  the  armed  force  of 
England  was  essentially  a  national  militia,  every  free- 
man having  to  bear  arms  either  to  defend  the  country 
or  to  maintain  order.  The  men  at  first  fought  on  foot; 
then  as  mailed  horsemen,  and  the  Conquerer  introduced 
the  system  of  tenure  by  knight  service.  According  to- 
this  system,  William  granted  lands  to  the  barons  in  re- 
turn for  their  guarantees  to  supply  him  with  a  "consta- 
bularia,"  or  a  body  of  ten  knights,  or  a  part  of  a  con- 
stabularia.  These  knights  had  to  serve,  with  horse  and 
arms  at  their  own  expense,  40  days  each  year.  The 
barons  then  got  their  tenants  to  serve  as  knights  in 
return  for  land,  or  if  they  could  not  supply  the  knights, 
the  barons  paid  the  king  an  equivalent  in  money, 
"scutage,"  with  which  he  hired  mercenaries.  From  the 
pay-rolls  found  during  the  siege  of  Calais  (1346),  it  is- 
known  that  all  ranks  from  the  Prince  downwards  were  paid,  the  funds  being- 
provided  partly  from  the  royal  revenues,  by  grants  from  Parliament,  and  from, 
fines.     The  soldiers'  contract  usually  ended  with  the  war. 

In  the  struggle  between  Cromwell  and  the  King,  the  influence  of  Cromwell's 
own  well-trained  troops  paved  the  way  for  a  complete  army  re-organization, 
which  was  given  the  name  of  the  "New  Model."  This  new  army,  however,  was. 
disbanded  on  the  restoration  of  the  Monarchy  (1660)  after  it  had  enforced  the 
execution  of  King  Charles  I,  dissolved  Parliament  and  governed  England  for 
some  years.  There  remained  of  it  only  Monk's  regiment  of  foot,  the  Coldstreanu 
Guards  of  the  Army  of  to-day.  Owing  to  the  jealousy  of  Parliament  no  serious 
attempt  was  made  to  maintain  a  large  army  until  1702,  when  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  an  army  of  200,000,  not  wholly  British,  however,  fought 
under  Marlborough,  and  won  the  battles  of  Blenheim  (1704),  Ramillies  (1706),, 
Oudenarde  (1708),  and  Malplaquet  (1709).  After  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  (1714), 
the  force  was  again  reduced,  knd  from  this  time  the  strength  of  the  standing  army 
has  been  determined  by  the  annual  votes  of  Parliament, 


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54 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


PRINCE  OF  WALES'   OWN  YORKSHIRE  REGIMENT 

The  fame  won  during  the  latter  part  of  the  Seven  Years'  War  was  coun- 
teracted by  the  defeat  in  America  and  by  the  unsuccessful  efforts  against  the 
French  Revolutionary  troops ;  the  corrupt  condition  of  the  home  administration 
was  changed  with  the  appointment  (1798)  of  Frederick  Augustus,  Duke  of  York, 
as  commander-in-chief.  He  raised  the  arn'ty  to  a  high  standard  of  efficiency, 
and  prepared  the  way  for  the  successes  of  the  Peninsular  War,  culminating  in 
Waterloo,  from  which  England  emerged  with  the  reputation  of  the  most  solidly 
organized  and  finest  army  in  Europe. 

After  this  war  the  former  peace  effective  of  20,000  men  was  increased  to 
80,000,  and  a  uniform  drill  was  introduced  and  perfected.     In  1847  life  enlist- 


56 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


ROYAL  SCOTS  FUSILIERS 

ment  was  replaced  by  the  Limited  Service  Act,  which  provided  for  enlistments 
of  from  ten  to  twelve  years,  with  power  to  re-engage  to  complete  twenty-one. 
The  army  did  not  see  any  special  service  until  the  Crimean  War  in  1854,  from 
which  it  came  out  victorious.  Profiting,  however,  by  the  severe  lessons  learned 
during  this  war,  England  revised  the  whole  system  of  administration ;  the  minor 
departments  were  absorbed  and  the  whole  entrusted  to  chiefs,  one  at  the  War 
Office  and  one  at  the  Horse  Guards  (in  1870  these  two  offices  were  combined)  ; 
the  food  and  general  treatment  of  the  soldiers  were  improved,  their  pay  in- 
creased, and  recreation  rooms  and  libraries  were  provided  for  them. 


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58 


THE   EUROPEAN   WAR 


NORTHUMBERLAND  FUSILIERS 


As  a  consequence  of  the  Boer  War,  successive  schemes  were  undertaken  by 
the  various  war  ministers,  culminating  in  Secretary  of  War  Haldane's  "terri- 
torial" scheme  (1908).  Under  this  system  the  country  was  divided  into  districts, 
which  were  again  divided  and  subdivided  as  necessary.  Each  unit  recruits,  and 
is  in  peace  usually  stationed  in  its  own  area ;  the  artillery,  cavalry  and  special 
arms  are  recruited  for  the  corps  throughout  the  whole  allotted  area,  and  are 
stationed  at  various  points  within  the  area.  Military  service  is  voluntary,  and 
the  maintenance  of  the  standing  army  depends  upon  the  Army  Bill  which  is 


ENGLAND 


59 


passed  annually  by  the  House  of  Commons.  Parliament  also  at  each  session 
passes  an  act  empowering  the  Crown  to  take  the  necessary  steps  to  maintain 
■discipline. 

Through  the  organization  effected  under  the  special  Act  of  1907,  the  British 
army  consists  of  the  "regular"  and  "territorial"  armies.  The  regular  comprises 
the  permanently  embodied  troops  and  the  army  reserves,  about  half  of  the  force 
being  always  abroad  in  India  and  the  Crown  colonies.  In  this  brar.^h  enlist- 
ments are  for  twelve  years,  with  the  possibility  of  extension  to  twenty-cne  years 
for  a  life  pension.  Color  service  in  the  infantry  and  artillery  is  for  six,  seven 
and  nine  years,  with  six,  five,  or  three  years  in  reserve;  in  the  cavalry  enlis'ment 
is  for  eight  years,  with  four  in  the  reserve,  enlistments  being  also  made  for  three 
years,  but  solely  for  reserve  forming  purposes.  Under  the  Re- organization  Act 
the  militia,  as  such,  was  abolished,  and  of  the  124  militia  battalions  formerly  ex- 
isting, 74  were  constituted  reserve  battalions  of  the  regular  army,  while  the  militia 
artillery  became  reserve  field  artillery.  Members  of  these  bodies  are  partially 
trained  in  time  of  peace,  and  are  available  either  for  transfer  to  the  army  or  for 
service  abroad  in  time  of  war. 

The  territorial  army  (composed  of  14  divisions  and  cavalry  brigades)  in 
■organization  is  similar  to  the  regular  army.  Recruitment  is  voluntary,  and  the 
period  of  enlistment  is  for  four  years,  with  the  option  of  continued  engagements 


FOLLOWING  THE  PIPES 
THE  SCOTS  GUARDS  MARCHING 


60 


THE   EUROPEAN   WAR 


for  periods  of  four  years  between  the  ages  of  27  and  40.    Annual  training  consists 

of  from  8  to  15  days  in  camp,  and  men  receive  pay  while  on  duty  at  the  same 

rate  as  in  the  regular  army.    In  case  of  mobilization,  the  territorial  army  would 

train  for  six  months,  and  would  then  have  the  duty  of  repelling  the  invasion,. 

although  20,000  officers  and  men  (1914)  have  accepted  liability  for  service  abroad 

in  war.    By  its  last  ( 1914)  reports  its  strength  was  9,650  officers  and  260,404  men. 
The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  officers  and  men  on  the  regimental 

establishments  of  the  army,  army  reserve,  special  reserves  and  territorial  forces: 

Establishments*  Effective 

1913-1914     1912-1913     Jan.  1,  1913 

Regular  forces  (Regimental),  Home  and  Co- 
lonial (including  regular  establishment  of 
special    reserves) 167,^ 

Colonial  and  Native  Indian  Corps 8,765 

Army  Reserve    145,000 

Special  Reserves  (excluding  regular  estab- 
lishment)           78,714 

Militia,  U.   K.**    

Militia,  Reserve   Division**    

Militia,  Channel   Islands    

Militia,  Malta  and  Bermuda  and  Bermuda 
Volunteers   

Territorial    Force    315,438 

Isle  of  Man  Volunteers    126 

Officers   and   Training   Corps    (Officers   and 

Permanent  Staff) 1,009 

Total  Home  and  Colonial  Establishments...     723,160 

Regular  Forces  (Regimental)  on  Indian  Es- 
tablishment           75,897 


90 
3,166 

2,894 


168,282 

8,871 

139,000 

89,913 

150 
3,166 

2,894 

316,307 

126 

1.008 
729,717 


162,251 

8,694 

141,898 

61,048 

636 

94 

2,928 

3,770 

265,867 
115 

791 
647,092 


75,886 


77,097 


Total    799,057        805,603        724,189 

*  Exclusive  of  number  voted  to  cover  regimental  fluctuations. 
**  Force  dying  out. 

Great  Britain's  expenditure  for  armament  for  1913-1914  amounted  to  $390,- 
528,112,  and  is  the  largest  in  proportion  to  the  population,  being  $8.50  per  capita. 


FIELD  MANOEUVRES 


62 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


SOLDIERS   CROSSING  A  RIVER 


ENGLAND 


6^ 


FIELD  MANOEUVRES 


64 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


~~' — '. ~~ ~~T~^~7- '  -^^ 

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A  BRITISH   INSTITUTION:     BOY   SCOUTS,   ORGANIZKD   BY   GENERAL 
BADEN-POWELL  DURING  THE   SOUTH   AFRICAN   WAR 


«.-.: 


■:^- 


ET  -^— 


SUPPLY  TRAIN 


ENGLAND 


65 


1.  ORDER  OF  ST.  PATRICK.  5.  CROWN  OF  INDIA 

2.  ORDER  OF  CHARDON.  6.  ST.   MICHAEL   AND    GEORGE. 

3.  GREAT  ORDER  OF  THE  GARTER.         7.  EMPEROR   OF   INDIA. 

4.  STAR  OF  INDIA.  8.  ORDER    OF  THE  GARTER. 

9.  ORDER  OF  THE  BATH 


THE  NAVY 


To  defend  themselves  against 
the  Norse  invasions  of  the  9th  cen- 
tury, the  EngHsh  people  founded  a 
national  organization  which  called 
upon  each  shire  to  supply  a  certain 
number  of  ships.  In  addition  to 
these,  Alfred  the  Great  and  his  suc- 
cessors had  ships  of  their  own,  and 
maintained  them  out  of  the  royal  rev- 
enues. To  these  were  added  in  the 
nth  century  the  feudal  "array,"  or 
the  services  rendered  by  the  seaport 
towns  in  return  for  special  fran- 
chises and  privileges  granted  them. 
The  Norman  Conquest  made  no  fun- 
damental change.  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  III  (1216-72)  the  navy  con- 
sisted of  57  ships  and  1,197  men  and 
boys,  who  were  paid  partly  by  the 
king  and  partly  by  the  diflferent 
towns. 

The  foundation  of  the  modern 
navy  really  dates  from  the  reign  of 
King  John,  who  had  50  galleys  (long 
ships  of  war)  in  various  ports.  In 
1360  Sir  John  Beauchamp  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  navy,  and 
given  the  title  of  admiral,  and  this 
office  became  a  permanent  one  in 
1406  when  John  Beaufort  was  ap- 
pointed to  it.  The  crews  consisted 
of  mariners  to  navigate  the  ships  and  soldiers  to  fight,  and  all  vessels  were,  of 
course,  sailing  ones.  During  the  reigns  of  Edward  III  and  Richard  II  (i377" 
1399)  the  navy  declined,  and  the  coast  was  ravaged  by  the  French 
and  their  allies;  but  except  during  these  periods  the  navy  of  the 
Middle  Ages  was  more  than  a  match  for  its  enemies,  as  proved  by  the  vic- 
tories  over   Philip   Augustus   in    1213,   Eustace   the   Monk   in   1217   off   Dover, 


THE     PRE-DREADNOUGHT 
"KING   EDWARD   VII" 


ENGLAND 


67 


iiii 

ill 

ADMIRAU 

# 

■11 

Vice 

ADMIRAL 

NAVAL    RESERVE 
(BLUE  ENSIGN) 


NAVAL  FLAGS 


MERCANTILE 

ENSIGN 

(RED     ENSIGN) 


the  French  fleet  at  Sluys  in  1340,  and  the  Spanish  off  Winchelsea  in  1350.     To 
the  navy  was  due  the  long  occupation  of  Calais  by  the  English. 

Under  the  Tudors  (1485-1603)  the  navy  steadily  developed,  and  Henry  VII 
built  many  ships.  Henry  VIII  organized  the  navy  office,  which  was  the  adminis- 
trative machinery  until  1832.  Under  the  Stuarts  the  navy  became  a  national 
force,  maintained  solely  by  Parliament.  Corruption,  however,  set  in,  and  in 
1618  the  committee  appointed  to  investigate  undertook  to  reconstruct  the  navy  at 
an  annual  cost  of  £30,000.    This  promise  was  fulfilled  in  1624.    In  1688  the  navy 


BATTLE  PRACTICE,  FIRING  AT  A  TARGET  NINE  MILES  AWAY 


68 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


DREADNOUGHT   "COLOSSUS" 


comprised  173  ships  of  101,892  tons,  carrying  when  in  commission  42,003  men, 
and  armed  with  6,930  guns. 

After  the  Revolution  of  1688  the  king  ceased  to  direct  the  navy,  and  it  was 
governed  by  a  parHamentary  committee  known  as  the  commission  for  discharg- 
ing the  office  of  lord  high  admiral.  The  crews  were  obtained  partly  by  voluntary 
enlistment  and  partly  by  impressment,  and  when  these  resources  failed,  recourse 
was  had  to  the  jails.  The  mismanagement  of  the  fleet  in  the  Spanish  War  (1739) 
led  to  a  drastic  reform  in  the  navy,  which  bore  fruit  before  the  close  of  the  war. 


DREADNOUGHT    "HERCULES" 


ENGLAND 


69 


DEFYING 
THE 
DARK 


In  1814  the  fleet  consisted  of  900  vessels  manned  by  146,000  men.  After  the 
Napoleonic  wars  the  force  was  considerably  reduced.  The  administration  up 
to  1832  was  generally  corrupt.  But  in  that  year  Sir  James  Graham  combined 
the  admiralty  and  naval  offices  into  one,  consisting  of  five  departments ;  and  from 
this  dates  the  modern  navy  organization.  The  board  of  admiralty  consists  of  a 
first  lord,  who  is  always  a  member  of  the  Cabinet,  and  who  directs  and  super- 
vises all  naval  affairs ;  under  him  are  four  naval  and  one  civil  lords. 

The  British  fleet  shows  to-day  a  strength  of:  27  dreadnoughts;  45  battle- 
ships ;  10  battle  cruisers ;  53  armored  cruisers ;  94  light  cruisers ;  195  destroyers ; 
49  torpedo  boats;  and  85  submarines.  The  ships  being  built  (1914)  are:  14 
dreadnoughts;  20  cruisers;  and  44  destroyers.  The  navy  expenditure  for  1913- 
1914  amounted  to  $231,546,500,  an  increase  of  48  per  cent  over  that  of  1907- 
1908.  The  air'fleet  includes :  6  dirigibles  and  136  aeroplanes,  and  3  dirigibles  are 
being  built. 

The  personnel  includes:  officers,  seamen  and  boys,  115,052;  coast-guards, 
3,130;  marines,  18,235;  officers,  men  and  boys  under  training  or  otherwise  em- 
ployed on  particular  service,  9,583 ;  officers  on  salary  or  half  pay,  420.  The 
Naval  Reserve  includes  21,523;  the  Home  Fleet  Reserve,  28,764;  the  Royal 
Naval  Volunteer  Reserve,  4,200;  and  pensioners  (seamen  and  marines),  8,023. 
The  grand  total,  active  and  reserve,  amounts  to :  208,929,  and  shows  an  increase 
of  11,138  over  the  figures  of  1912-1913. 


SEARCHLIGHTS 
AT 
WORK 


s^^ 


GUARDIAN    OF   THE    BRITISH    ISLES 


THE  BRITISH   FLEET 


72 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


H.  M.   BATTLESHIP  "ALBEMARLE" 


H.  M.  CRUISER  "MAGNIFICENT" 


H.  M.  CRUISER  "TERRIBLE" 


w 
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74 


THE  EUROPEAN   WAR 


H.   M.   DESTROYER   "FIREDRAKE' 


H.    M.    DESTROYER    "ARI^IL" 


H.  M.  TORPEDO  BOAT     .S3' 


NCINEESfNO 
BRANCH 


NAVY  UNIFORMS 


76 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


SUBMARINE  "A  E  2" 


H.  M.  SUBMARINE  "D  78" 


WM 

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H.    M.    SUBMARINE    "A    14" 


H.  M.  SUBMARINE   "C  65' 


ENGLAND 


77 


H.  M.  CRUISER  "BIRMINGHAM" 


FLOATING    DOCK 


THE   FLEET  ANCHORED   OFF   SPITHEAD 


PHASES  OF   NAVAL  ACTIVITY 


ENGLAND 


79 


DEFENSE  AGAINST  ATTACKS 
BY    SEA  AND  AIR 


THE    AIR    FLEET:      BRITISH    DIRIGIBLES 


THE  AIR  FLEET:     HYDROPLANE 


80 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


A  NEW  WEAPON: 


AN   ENGLISH   GUN   WHICH   MAY   BE   FIRED   EITHER 
AT  OR  FROM  AIR  CRAFT 


rHt    Short"  bi  planc 
rrrreo  vrirn  rftftec 
roivf'coo  ■  SH/t^Ki)  Ft.  OA  ra  . 
rftrs  cytAf  ^JL/Cf^r  o/v  r//c 
IVA.T.'fr  Otfr  CAfJNOr  /i/sc 


THE  AIR  FLEET:     BI-PLANE 


Fran 


ce 


RAYMOND    POINCARfi 
President  of  France 


THE   PRESIDENT   EXAMINING  A   SIEGE   GUN 


THE  PRESIDENT 


M.  Raymond  Poincare  was  born  on  August  20,  1860,  at  Bar-le-Duc  (Meuse). 
He  studied  law  at  Paris,  served  as  Secretary  to  the  Minister  of  Agriculture,  and 
entered  politics  in  1887,  when  he  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He 
was  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  in  1893  and  again  in  1895,  and  was  Finance 
Minister  in  1894  and  again  in  1896.  He  entered  the  Senate  in  1903,  and  on  the 
fall  of  the  Caillaux  Cabinet  he  accepted  the  premiership  (January,  1912),  which 
he  retained  until  his  election  as  president  on  January  17,  1913.  His  election 
was  considered  throughout  France  a  triumph  for  nationalism  as  M.  Poincare 
is  well  known  as  an  advocate  of  electoral  reform  and  proportional  representation. 
In  recognition  of  his  merits,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French  Academy 
(1909).  Of  his  works  perhaps  the  most  well  known  is  Idees  Contemporaines. 
He  is  a  man  of  high  honor  and  exceptional  ability.  The  enthusiastic  reception 
accorded  to  him  by  the  English  nation  during  his  visit  to  King  George  in  1913, 
was  regarded  as  a  proof  of  the  popularity  of  the  Triple  Entent. 


'^'"" 


THE  EUROPEAxN   WAR 


M.   DELCASSE 
War  Minister 


M.    VIVIANI 
Premier 


GENERAL  JOFFRfi 

Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Army 


ADMIRAL  BOU£  DE  LAPEYRfiRE 
Commarder-in-Chief  of  the  Fleet 


CIVIL  ORDER  OF  MERIT       ORDER  OF  MEXTANA       LEGION  OF  HONOR 


HISTORY 


Before  the  Roman  conquest,  France  was 
divided  among  three  peoples,  the  Gauls,  the 
Iberians  and  the  Greeks,  who  had  developed  a 
flourishing  and  advanced  civilization.  The 
first  Roman  incursions  took  place  about  154 
B.  C.  and  continued  until  52  B.  C.,  when  the 
country  as  far  as  the  Rhine  and  the  Channel 
was  conquered  by  Julius  Caesar  and  made  a 
Roman  province.  It  was  then  known  as  Gaul. 
During  the  fifth  century,  A.  D.,  various  bar- 
barian tribes  invaded  the  province.  The  Visi- 
goths settled  in  the  south,  the  Burgundians  in 
the  east,  and  in  the  northeast  the  Salian  Franks 
(from  whom  the  name  France  is  derived),  a 
Gothic  tribe  which  had  settled  along  the 
Scheldt,  the  Meuse  and  the  Rhine.  The 
Franks  gradually  overcame  the  Gallo-Romans 
and  their  King,  Clovis,  at  the  battle  of  Sois- 
sons  (486)  succeeded  in  putting  an  end  to  the 
Roman  domination  of  6  centuries.  He  ex- 
tended his  authority  from  the  Rhine  to  the 
Rhone  and  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Channel, 
L  established  his  residence  at  Paris,  converted  his 
subjects  to  Christianity,  and  founded  the  Mero- 
vingian dynasty.  At  his  death  the  kingdom  was  divided  among  his  four  sons,  and 
there  was  a  state  of  continual  warfare  until  Dagobert  I  (638)  assumed  the 
title  of  King  of  the  Franks  and  re-established  order.  His  successors  left  all  con- 
duct of  affairs  to  the  "mayors  of  the  palace,"  against  whose  tyrannical  rule  the  no- 
bles under  Pepin  of  Heristal,  one  of  the  mayors,  revolted.  Pepin  assumed  com- 
plete control,  though  leaving  the  empty  title  of  King  to  Thierry  III.  He  re-estab- 
lished the  ancient  assemblies,  and  gave  a  seat  in  them  to  the  bishops  and  clergy. 
His  son,  Charles  Martel,  in  a  series  of  brilliant  victories,  defeated  the  Frisians, 
Germans,  Bretons  and  Aquitanians,  adding  considerable  territory  to  the  kingdom, 
and  in  the  battle  of  Tours  (732)  drove  the  Saracens  out  of  France.  With  his  son. 
Pepin  the  Short,  the  rule  of  the  "rois  faineants"  came  to  an  end.  Childeric  III 
was  confined  in  a  monastery,  and  Pepin  ascended  the  throne  (752).  Though 
he  accomplished  much,  his  fame  is  overshadowed  by  the  greater  glory  of  his  son 
Charlemagne,  who  began  the  Carlovingian  dynasty.  He  enlarged  his  kingdom, 
taking  Aix-la-Chapelle  for  his  capital,  founded  schools,  encouraged  art,  ad- 
vanced civilization  in  every  way,  and  re-established  the  Roman  Empire,  being 
crowned  Emperor  by  Pope  Leo  III  in  800.     By  the  treaty  of  Verdun  (843),  his 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


empire  was  divided  among  his  three  sons,  Louis  receiving  the  lands  east  of  the 
Rhine  (Deutschland,  Germany),  Lothair  receiving  Italy  and  the  title  of  emperor, 
and  Charles  the  lands  west  of  the  Scheldt,  Meuse,  Saone  and  Rhone,  which  were 
called  France. 

Under  the  feeble  Carlovingians,  France  was  invaded  by  the  Normans  (who 
founded  Normandy),  feudalism  was  established,  and  the  power  of  the  nobles 
constantly  increased,  until  Hugh  Capet,  one  of  their  number,  seized  the  throne, 
thus  founding  the  Capetian  dynasty.  He  was  crowned  at  Rheims  (987),  and 
added  to  the  small  remaining  territory  of  the  Carlovingians  Paris,  Orleans  and 
a  part  of  Picardy,  thus  forming  the  "domain  of  the  crown,"  to  the  increase  of 
which,  and  to  the  augmenting  of  the  power  of  the  King,  succeeding  Capetians 
devoted  themselves. 

Great  progress  was  made  under  succeeding  Capetian  sovereigns.  Louis  VI 
(1108-37)  subdued  the  nobles,  granted  certain  liberties  to  the  communes, 
added  much  territory  in  the  south  by  the  marriage  of  his  son  to  Eleanor  of 
Aquitaine,  and  began  the  long  wars  with  England.  Philip  Augustus  (d.  1223), 
added  Vermandois,  Valais,  Amiens  and  Artois,  joined  the  Third  Crusade,  re- 
covered Normandy,  Anjou,  Touraine,  Maine  and  Poitou  from  the  English 
(battle  of  Bouvines,  1214),  protected  the  cities  against  the  nobles,  surrounded 
Paris  with  a  wall,  paved  the  streets,  constructed  the  Halles  and  the  Louvre,  re- 
built Notre  Dame  (which  had  been  begun  by  Louis  VII),  and  grouped  the  schools 
of  Paris  into  a  university.  St.  Louis  IX  (d.  1270),  one  of  the  greatest  of 
French  kings,  concluded  a  treaty  with  England,  embarked  on  the  seventh  and 
eighth  crusades  (on  the  latter  of  which  he  died),  and  consolidated  his  kingdom, 
establishing  peace  and  prosperity,  advancing  justice  and  encouraging  learning. 
Philip  le  Bel  (d.  1314),  summoned  the  States  General  for  the  first  time 
(March  28,  1302).  With  Charles  IV  (1322-28),  the  Capetian  line  died  out. 
and  as  the  5tates  General  at  the  time  of  Louis  X  had  decided  to  follow  the 
Salic  law  and  exclude  the  female  heirs,  the  throne  went  to  Philip  VI  (nephew 
of  Philip  le  Bel)  of  Valois.  Under  his  successors,  and  during  the  Hundred 
Years'  War,  France  declined,  but  thanks  to  Joan  of  Arc,  in  1453,  Charles  VII  was 
enabled  to  overcome  the  English.  With  renewed  strength,  he  took  up  the  struggle 
against  the  nobles,  which  was  carried  on  by  Louis  XI  (d.  1483).  Charles  VII 
began  the  Italian  wars  which  were  so  full  of  disaster  for  Francis  I.  Though 
his  political  policy  brought  great  trouble  upon  his  country,  Francis  introduced  the 
Renaissance,  was  a  liberal  patron  of  art  and  literature,  created  the  College  de 
France  and  made  his  court  with  the  help  of  his  sister.  Marguerite,  one  of  the 
most  brilliant  in  Europe. 

In  1589  the  Valois  line  died  out,  and  the  crown  went  to  the  Bourbon  Henry 
of  Navarre,  who  was  descended  from  the  sixth  son  of  St.  Louis  IX.  He  defeated 
the  League  at  Arques  (1589)  and  Ivry  (1590),  and  entered  Paris  in  1594  as 
Henry  IV  of  France.  Assisted  by  his  minister  Sully,  he  organized  his  kingdom, 
encouraged  industry,  commerce  and  agriculture,  and  founded  the  silk  industry 
by  introducing  the  mulberry  bush.  His  son,  Louis  XIII,  by  the  aid  of  Richelieu, 
prepared  the  way  for  the  absolute  power  of  Louis  XIV.  Under  Louis  XIV  France 
saw  the  most  brilliant  period  of  her  history.  Powerful  abroad  and  secure  at 
home,  the  country  entered'  upon  unparalelled  prosperity.  This  was  also  the  golden 
age  of  her  literature.  Racine,  Moliere,  Corneille  (who  with  Descartes,  was  the 
first  to  free  the  French  language  and  thought  from  restrictions  due  to  Greek  and 
Latin  influences),  Bossuet  and  Fenelon  are  the  greatest  of  French  poets,  dram- 
atists, orators  and  philosophers.  The  excesses  of  the  Regency  and  the  in- 
difiference  of  Louis  XV,  reduced  France  to  a  state  of  poverty  and  bankruptcy 
and   prepared   the   way   for  the   revolution  against   which   Louis  XVI   was   to 


FRANCE 


89 


struggle  in  vain.  Louis  XVI  tried  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  people  by 
calling  the  States  General  and  yielding  concessions  (1789).  The  people,  how- 
ever, feeling  their  power,  took  affairs  into  their  own  hands,  and  proclaimed  a 
constitutional  monarchy.  The  King  and  Queen  were  imprisoned  and  finally 
beheaded.  The  Revolution  established  a  republic  and  a  period  of  anarchy  set  in 
with  the  Reign  of  Terror,  which  though  it  secured  success  against  the  enemy 
abroad,  finally  fell,  and  the  Directory  was  established.  Napoleon  Bonaparte 
overthrew  the  Directory  and  assumed  the  power.  He  established  peace  and 
order    within    the    country   and    in    his    foreign   campaigns   carried    the   victori- 


90 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


o^wa\y|^V"^^^^J~  l'p)\ 


v-^ 


NAPOLEON 


The    Consular    Signature 


The    Imperial    Signature 


ous  French  armies  over  Europe.  His  ambitions  aimed  at  an  Empire  and  he 
had  himself  crowned  Emperor  in  1804.  He  gave  France  a  code  of  laws,  con- 
cluded a  concordat  with  the  Pope,  and  made  France  the  supreme  military  country 
of  Europe.  Europe,  however,  formed  a  coalition  against  him,  and  he  was  defeated 
at  the  battle  of  Waterloo  in  1815,  when  the  throne  passed  to  Louis  XVHI,  brother 
of   Louis  XVL 

The  monarchy  lasted  until  1848,  when  the  Second  Republic  was  proclaimed, 
but  after  the  coup  d'  etat  of  1841  the  empire  was  again  set  up,  with  Louis  Na- 
poleon on  the  throne.  During  this  period  France  took  part  in  the  Crimean  War 
(1854)  and  the  Italian- Austrian  War  of  1859.  Many  public  works  were  built, 
railroads  were  constructed,  commerce  and  industries  flourished,  great  progress 
in  education  was  made,  and  Paris  rebuilt  on  a  magnificent  scale.  Louis  Napo- 
leon's foreign  policy  led  to  the  disastrous  war  of  1870,  after  which  France  was 
obliged  to  cede  Alsace-Lorraine  to  Germany.  The  Empire  was  then  overthrown 
and  the  Third  Republic,  which  still  exists,  was  set  up  with  Thiers  as  President. 
During  this  period  France  has  extertded  her  influence  and  territory  in  South- 
eastern Asia  (Chinese  War  of  1885),  Tunis  and  Western  Africa,  and  Mada- 
gascar, and  has  developed  her  army. 

France  has  an  area  of  207,218  sq.  miles,  and  a  population  of  39,601,509. 
More  than  half  of  the  population  is  employed  in  agriculture ;  mining  employs 
250,000,  while  5,001,743  are  employed  in  manufacturing.  According  to  the 
1913-14  reports  the  exports  amounted  to  $1,375,060,000  and  the  imports  to 
$1,801,675,000. 

According  to  the  constitution  of  1871  France  is  a  republic,  governed 
by  a  President  and  a  legislature,  which  consists  of  the  Assembly,  sitting  in  two 
houses:  the  Senate  (300  members),  which  is  indirectly  elected  for  9  years  (one- 
third  retiring  every  3  years)  by  delegates  chosen  by  the  municipal  councils  and  the 
Senators,  Deputies,  Councillors-General  and  District  Councillors  of  the  De- 
partments; and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  (584  members),  which  is  elected  for 
4  years,  by  universal  suffrage.  The  executive  power  is  confided  to  the  President, 
who  is  elected   for  7  years  by  the  two  Houses  united  in  National  Assembly. 


FRANCE 


91 


He  receives  $120,000  a  year,  and  a  further  allowance  of  $120,000  for  expenses. 

He  appoints  the  ministers,  makes  all  civil  and  military  appointments,  declares 

war  with  the  consent  of  the  two  houses ;  but 
his  every  act  must  be  countersigned  by  a  Min- 
ister. The  Conseil  d'  Etat,  a  special  body 
composed  of  Councillors,  Maitres  des  Requetes 
and  Auditors,  all  appointed  by  the  President, 
and  presided  over  by  the  Minister  of  Justice, 
gives  advice  upon  the  administrative  points, 
submitted  by  the  government.  The  constitu- 
tion was  revised  in  1875,  1884  and  1889. 

The  colonies  are  looked  upon  as  being 
politically  part  of  France,  and  are  represented 
in  the  Senate  by  4  senators,  and  in  the  Cham- 
ber by  10  deputies. 

The  Minister  of  the  Colonies  controls  the 
administration  of  all  the  colonies,  but  Algiers, 
being  regarded  as  part  of  France,  is  under 
the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  and  Morocco  and 
Tunis  are  under  the  Minister  for  Foreign  Af- 
fairs. These  colonies  which  are  not  directly 
represented  in  the  Council  of  Deputies,  are 
represented  in  the  Conseil  superieur  de 
Colonies,  which  consists  of  colonial  senators 
and  deputies,  colonial  delegates  and  other 
ofificials  appointed  to  it.  The  French  colonies 
include : 


NAPOLEON  III 


Africa:  Morocco  (protectorate  since  1912;  220,000  sq.  mi..;  population  5,000,- 
000),  Algeria  (1834;  343,500  sq.  mi. ;  pop.  750,000  Europeans  and  5,000,000 
natives),  Tunis  (protectorate  since  1882;  51,000  sq.  mi.;  pop.  2,000,000), 
French  Somali  Coast  (1884;  46,000  sq.  mi.;  pop.  208,061),  French  Congo 
(1841-1911;  669,000  sq.  mi.;  pop.  9,000,000  of  whom  1,200  are  white), 
Madagascar  (1895;  228,500  sq.  mi.;  pop.  3,500,000),  Reunion  (1642; 
970  sq.  mi.;  pop.  173,822),  French  West  Africa,  including  Sahara,  Senegal, 
Guinea,  Ivory  Coast,  Dahomey,  Upper  Senegal-Niger,  and  Mauritania 
(1,478,000  sq.  mi;  pop.  10,465,072  of  whom  9,000  are  non-African). 

America:  French  Guiana  (made  penal  settlement  in  1853;  30,500  sq.  mi.; 
pop.  49,000),  Guadeloupe  islands  and  dependencies  (1815;  688  sq.  mi.;  pop. 
21,200),  Martinique  (1635;  385  sq.  mi.;  pop.  194,000),  St.  Pierre  and 
Miguellon  (1635;  93  sq.  mi.;  pop.  4,652). 

Asia:  French  India  (1674-1815 ;  196  sq.  mi. ;  pop.  17,000,000)  ;  French  Indo-China 
including  Annam,  Cambodia,  Cochin-China,  Tonking,  Laos  and  Kwang- 
Chau-Wan,  leased  from  China  (261,690  sq.  mi.;  pop.  17,000,000). 

Australasia :  New  Caledonia  and  dependencies  ( 1853 ;  7,650  sq.  mi. ;  pop. 
50,608),  other  islands  in  Oceania  including  Society,  Leeward,  Marquezas, 
Tuamotu,  Moorea,  etc.  (1,520  sq.  mi;  pop.  31,000,  of  whom  ninety  per  cent 
are  natives). 


SOLDIERS  OF  HENRY  IV 


THE  ARMY 


After  the  barbarian  invasions  of .  Gaul,  each  man  was  a  warrior  and  there 
was  no  separate  military  body.  Among  Charlemagne's  reforms  was  the  re- 
organization of  the  army  and  the  definition  of  the  military  obligations  of  free 
men.  The  10th  and  11th  centuries  saw  the  establishment  of  the  feudal  system 
of  military  service  in  France,  each  lord  being  obliged  to  supply  his  suzerain  with 
a  certain  number  of  lances.  This  system  permitted  the  nobles  to  prey  upon  the 
people  and  led  to  such  excesses  that  the  people  petitioned  Charles  VII  to  establish 
a  definite  army  and  by  the  law  of  November  2,  1439,  the  King  started  a 
permanent  army,  from  the  Mercenaries  who  had  served  in  the  Hundred  Years' 
War.  He  added  franc-archers  and  compagnies  d'  ordonnance  (heavy  cav- 
alry), but  his  successors  continued  to  call  in  mercenaries  and  in  the  con- 
fusion of  the  long  wars  of  Charles  VII,  Francis  I  and  Henry  IV,  the  idea 
of  a  permanent  army  was  lost  sight  of.  Henry  IX  and  Louis  XIII  drafted 
the  poor,  vagabonds  and  peasants.  The  army  consisted  of  regiments  of  horse 
and   foot,   each  of   which  belonged   to  its  colonel.     Louis  XIV,  however,  de- 


GRENADIER  OF  NAPOLEON 


94 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


CARABINIER  (SECOND  EMPIRE,  1868) 


sired  to  have  absolute  control  over  his  armies  and  to  this  end  directed  his  war- 
minister,  Louvois,  to  re-organize  the  army.  Under  Louvois'  reforms,  the  pro- 
prietary system  was  modified,  enlistment  in  the  rank  and  file  was  voluntary  for 
4  years,  and  in  place  of  the  arriere-ban,  a  militia  was  raised  by  ballot  (1688). 
Louvois  founded  companies  of  artillery,  introduced  the  system  of  magazines, 
built  up  an  excellent  hospital  service,  opened  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  in  Paris  as 
a  home  for  old  soldiers,  and  established  training  schools  for  officers.  Thus  was 
founded  the  first  real  permanent  royal  army,  which  has  since  served  as  the  basis 
of  all  succeeding  French  armies.  This  highly  efficient  army  made  France,  at  the 
latter  end  of  the  17th  century,  the  foremost  military  power  of  Europe,  and  al- 
though the  reputation  of  the  army  suffered  somewhat  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  the  war  ended  with  French  victories.  During  the  wars  of  1740-63, 
corrupt  administration  and  incompetent  leaders  (with  few  exceptions)  were 
responsible  for  the  reverses  suffered,  although  Fonenoy  was  a  splendid  victory. 
The  successes  of  the  American  War  (1776-83)  restored  confidence,  revived  the 
warlike  spirit,  and  more  attention  was  paid  to  the  drilling  of  the  army.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  (1789)  the  royal  army  consisted  of  224  infantry 
battalions,  7  artillery  regiments,  62  cavalry  regiments,  totalling  173,000,  capable 
of  being  increased  to  a  war  strength  of  210,000. 

More  reforms  were  added  in  the  early  years  of  the  Revolution :  a  national 
guard  was  organized,  promotion  from  the  ranks  was  permitted,  voluntary  en- 
listment   was    established.       These    reforms,    however,    proved    disastrous    to 


FRANCE: 


DRAGOONS 

discipline  and  organization,  and  the  army  met  with  reserves  in  the  first  campaigns 
against  Austria.  To  save  the  Revolution  strong  measures  were  necessary. 
Lazare  Carnot  was  made  minister  of  war,  and  compulsory  conscription  was 
adopted,  by  which  an  army  of  1,000,000  men  was  raised.  Carnot  organized 
the  infantry  into  brigades  and  demi-brigades  of  3  battalions,  created  arse- 
nals, and  re-established  military  schools.  The  army  was  thoroughly  trained 
and  from  these  reforms  the  crude  Republican  forces  emerged  a  well-disci- 
plined army,  able  to  win  for  the  Revolution  the  glorious  victories  of  Fleurus 
(1794),  Hondschoote  (1794),  Wattignies  (1794),  Wissembourg  (1794),  and 
Ettingen  (1796).  These  victories,  however,  exhausted  the  army,  and  in  1798, 
with   the   passing   of    General   Jourdan's   famous   law,   conscription    for  general 


96 


THE   EUROPEAN  WAR 


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GROUPING  THE  COLORS:  COLONIAL  TROOPS 


service  began.  Thus  when  Napoleon  took  command,  practically  the  whole 
male  population  was  at  his  disposal.  He  perfected  the  work  of  organiza- 
tion, forming  the  "corps  troops"  and  cavalry  and  artillery  reserves.  But 
the  long  foreign  wars  had  no  attraction  for  the  soldiers,  and  the  number  of 
refractaires  (men  who  refused  to  come  up  for  service)  increased,  so  that  in  1806 
Napoleon  was  obliged  to  anticipate  the  conscripts  of  1807. 
Even  the  "Grand  Armee  of  1805-06  owed  in  great  part  its 
victories  (Austerlitz,  Jena,  Auerstadt)  to  the  fifty  per  cent 
of  the  old  veterans  which  remained  in  it.  The  anticipated 
conscriptions  failed  and  Napoleon  was  obliged  to  call  in 
foreign  soldiers,  until  his  armies  became  a  mass  of  men  of 
all  nations,  and  as  later  wars  closed  these  avenues  of  recruit- 
ment, conscription  became  more  and  more  severe.  Only 
the  genius  of  Napoleon  could  have  controlled  such  a  hetero- 
geneous army  and  compelled  the  victories  of  Friedland 
(1807),  Wagram  (1809),  Smolensk  (1812). 

The  Restoration  abolished  conscription,  but  was  obliged 
to  re-enforce  it.  Up  to  1855,  however,  exemptions  and  sub- 
stitutions were  allowed,  but  in  this  year  the  law  of  dotation 
(or  exemption  by  payment)  was  passed,  thus  ending  a  per- 
sonal substitution,  and  the  State  provided  substitutes  for  all 
those  who  paid  a  fixed  sum.  In  this  way,  conscription  grad- 
ually yielded  to  voluntary  enlistment,  and  in  1866  of  a  total 
establishment  of  400,000,  only  120,000  were  conscripts. 
During  this  period  many  changes  were  made  in  the  organi- 
zation. In  the  Crimean  War  (1854)  the  army  was  raised 
to  500,000  men.  The  old  imperial  guard  was  re-established, 
and  the  army  won  great  fame  under  Napoleon  III  in  1859 
by  the  victories  of  Montebello,  Magenta  afid  Solferino.    The 


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FRANCE 


99 


FIELD    ARTILLERY    ESCORTED    BY    DRAGOONS 


campaign  of  the  Germans  in  1866  showed  France  that  it  was  necessary  to  re- 
organize her  army  if  she  were  to  maintain  her  military  reputation,  and  in  1867 
Marshal  Niel  introduced  his  measure  to  produce  a  "nation  in  arms"  based 
on  universal  service.  By  the  law  of  February  1,  1868,  miHtary  service  was 
fixed  at  5  years  in  the  active  army  and  3  in  the  reserve,  and  an  active  national 
guard  wa^  formed  in  which  all  tnose  who  bought  themselves  off  from  military 
service  or  who  remained  after  the  annual  conscription  was  filled  ( 100,000  men), 
were  compelled  to  serve.  The  first  line  army  was  to  consist  of_  800,000  men  (half 
in  reserve),  with  a  separate  army  of  the  second  Hue.  But  his  death  in  1869  left 
the  work  incomplete,  while  the  disastrous  Franco-Prussian  War  opened  in  1870. 
The  field  troops  then  consisted  of  368  battaHons,  252  squadrons  and  983  guns ; 
the  peace  strength  was  393,000,  the  war  567,000.  Within  a  year,  the  nation  sent 
1,700,000  into  the  field,  but  they  were  unable  to  withstand  the  well-disciplined 
and  experienced  German  troops. 

Since  1870  every  effort  has  been  made  to  bring  the  French  army  up  to  the 


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INFANTRY    SKIRMISHING    DURING    MANOEUVRES 

highest  point  of  efficiency.  Important  recruiting  laws  were  passed  in  1872,  1889, 
and  1905.  To-day  the  French  army  consists  of  the  National  or  Metropolitan  army 
and  the  Colonial,  both  under  the  Minister  of  War.  Military  service  is  com- 
pulsory and  universal,  no  exemptions  being  allowed,  except  for  physical  unfitness, 
and  liability  to  service  extends  from  the  age  of  20  to  48.  According  to  the 
Law  of  1913,  by  which  the  nation  endeavored  to  keep  pace  with  the  German 
laws  of  1911  and  1912,  the  two-year  term  of  service  with  the  colors  was  raised 
to  three,  by  which  means  the  standing  army  was  increased  by  about  230,000.  After 
serving  3  years  in  the  regular  army,  the  soldier  serves  11  in  the  reserve,  7  in  the 
territorial  army  and  8  in  the  territorial  reserve,  in  which  division  alone  there  is 
no  periodical  training.     The  Colonial  army  is  entirely  distinct  from  the  Metro- 


^j^4 


A  BICYCLE  BATTALION 


102 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


eciv-;.- 


politan,  is  recruited  exclusively  by  voluntary  enlistment,  and  consists  of  garrisons 
(native  and  white)  stationed  over  seas,  and  a  force  in  France. 

The  peace  strength  (1913)  of  the  armies  in  France  and  provinces  close  by 
from  which  troops  can  be  readily  moved  is : 

France 

Staffs  and   services,   etc 7,274 

Military  schools  2,828 

Infantry    312,429 

Cavalry    64,061 

Artillery    92,237 

Engineers   16,564 

Train   8,020 

Administrative  corps 14,550 

Gendarmerie,  gardes  repub 24,827 

Saharan  companies 

Total  Metropolitan  army 543,790 

Colonial  troops  in  France 27,944 

Colonial  troops    


Algiers 

Tunis 

Total 

1,226 

262 

8,762 
2,828 

36,546 

12,373 

361,348 

7,466 

1,844 

73,369 

3,532 

1,802 

97,571 

1,302 

469 

18,335 

1,859 

613 

10,492 

3,750 

700 

19,000 

143 

24,990 

1,005 

1,005 

56,686         18,206 


27,944 


Total    571,734         56,686         18,206       645,644 

To  these  may  be  added  in  time  of  war  500,000  reserves  and  80,000  colonial 
native  troops  at  once  available;  600,000  reserves  of  the  second  line  (fit  for  field 
work),  500,000  of  the  territorial  army  (fit  for  garrison  and  covering  duty),  and 
300,000  territorial  reserves  (trained  for  home  duty  only)  could  also  be  called  out. 
Thus  the  total  effective  war  strength  would  be  well  over  2,500,000. 
France  expended  for  armament  during  1913-14,  $306,814,844. 


MANOEUVRES 
GENERAL   STAFF   IN    CENTER 


104 


THE  EUROPEAN   WAR 


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THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


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THE  NAVY 


The  foundation  of  the  French  navy  dates  from 
about  1180,  when  Philip  Augustus  began  the  task 
of  recovering  the  sea-coast  from  his  great  vassals 
and  from  King  John  of  England.  On  account  of  her 
geographical  position,  France  has  always  had  to 
liave  two  fleets,  one  in  the  Mediterranean  and  one 
for  her  northern  and  western  coasts.  The  King 
drew  his  navy  from  the  feudal  array  (see  England, 
The  Navy),  the  national  levy  and  his  personal  ships. 
Though  many  of  the  great  vassals  owned  ships, 
they  did  not  always  supply  them,  nor  were  the 
coast  towns  much  more  willing  to  contribute  their 
qv.otSL,  so  that  the  King  was  obliged  to  rely  upon 
his  own  forces,  which  he  in  a  great  measure  pur- 
chased or  obtained  from  Genoa  and  Aragon.  St. 
Louis  (1226-70)  created  the  first  royal  fleet  for  his 
first  crusade  (1249),  built  the  first  dockyard 
( Aigues  Mortes),  and  created  the  office  of  admiral. 
His  fleet  consisted  of  galleys  rowed  by  hired  men 
(tiirma).  From  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury the  turma  were  replaced  by  galley  slaves. 
Philip  IV  le  Bel  (1285-1314)  opened  a  naval  sta- 
tion at  Rouen,  which,  however,  disappeared  in  1419. 

The  navy  then  fell  into  obscurity,  excepting  during    Francis  Fs  reign  (1515-47), 

until  the  reconstruction  under  Richelieu. 

After   Richelieu's   death   it   again   disintegrated,   but   was    rebuilt   and    well 

organized  by  Louis  XIV  (1643-1715).    With  the  assistance  of  the  ablest  officers, 

Louis'  ministers,  Colbert  and  Lyonne,  drew  up  a  code  of  laws,  the  ordonnance. 


Flags. 


ENSIGN  *  JACK 


VICe-AOMIRAL. 


REAR-ADMIRAL.  CAPTAIN 

commandinK  a  division. 


AVei — A  vico-;uliniral  wears  his  Qag  at  the  fore,  rear-adiuiral  at  the  main. 


112 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


"VILLE  DE  PARIS"  OF  1851 


which  was  promulgated  on  April  5,  1689.  This  ordonnance,  with  revisions  made 
in  1765,  72,  74,  76  and  '86,  was  used  until  the  Revolution.  According  to  it, 
service  was  compulsory,  affecting  the  inhabitants  of  coast  towns  and  river  valleys 
as  far  up  as  they  were  capable  of  floating  a  lighter,  and  so  severe  were  the  con- 
scription laws  that  service  was  evaded,  even  at  the  expense  of  voluntary  exile. 
The  navy  did  not  include  a  permanent  marine  force.  Though  in  theory  the 
administration  was  very  fine,  it  was  in  reality  corrupt,  and  the  ill-treatment  of 
the  sailors  led  to  many  desertions.  The  noble  corps  clung  to  its  special  priv- 
ileges, and  maintained  an  insolent  attitude  towards  the  off  icier s  hleus.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  Revolution  the  long  repressed  hatred  of  the  noble  officers  broke 
out  in  all  its  fury,  and  nearly  all  were  massacred  or  driven  into  exile.    Louis  XVI 


FRANCE 


113 


'PARIS"  OF  1914 


had,  it  is  true,  relaxed  in  1786  the  rule  which  demanded  proofs  of  the  nobility 
of  all  naval  officers,  but  it  was  too  late. 

In  the  disorganizations  and  re-organizations  which  the  navy  underwent  during 
the  Revolution,  all  discipline  was  lost,  and  all  attempts,  first  by  the  Republic 
and  then  by  the  Empire,  to  re-establish  an  effective  navy  failed.  After  the  fall 
of  the  Empire,  however,  the  navy  steadily  developed,  and  at  the  present  day 
she  ranks  fourth  of  the  navies  of  the  world.  During  recent  years  special 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  development  of  submarines,  as  it  is  conceded 
that  these  would  adequately  protect  the  coasts  and  could  be  maintained  at 
little  expense.  France  also  has  paid  special  attention  to  aviation,  preferring 
aeroplanes  to  dirigibles. 


114 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


BATTLESHIP  "SUFFREN' 


The  navy  is  manned  partly  by  conscription,  partly  by  voluntary  enlistment, 
and  partly  from  the  army.  The  greater  number  of  officers  are  graduates  of  the 
naval  academy  at  Brest,  but  many  are  obtained  from  other  schools,  especially 
those  promoted  from  the  enlisted  force.  The  navy  department  is  under  the 
direction  of  the  Superior  Council  of  the  Navy  (organized  in  1909),  and  presided 
over  by  a  minister  of  marine,  a  civil  officer  who  is  a  member  of  the  Cabinet. 
The  executive  head  was  the  chief  of  the  naval  general  staff  until  1902,  when  the 
chief  became  a  bureau  officer,  and  all  bureau  officers  became  subordinate  to  the 
minister  of  marine.  Since  the  law  of  September,  1912,  practically  the  whole 
navy  is  concentrated  in  the  Mediterranean. 

The  personnel  of  the  navy  consists  of:     15  vice  admirals,  30  rear  admirals, 
125  captains,  215  commanders,  754  lieutenants,  420  sub-lieutenants,  1,700  midship- 
men, 52,000  men  and  a  reserve  force  of  about  42,300. 
The  French  fleet  shows  a  strength  of: 

Built    Building 

Dreadnoughts    2  9 

Battleships    23  7 

Armored  cruisers    20 

Coast  defenders 4 

1st  class  protected  cruisers 5 

2nd  class  protected  cruisers 4 

3rd  class  protected  cruisers    5 

Torpedo   vessels    4 

Torpedo   destroyers    81  5 

Torpedo  boats   166 

Submarines    73  17 

The  navy  expenditure  for  1913-14  amounted  to  $104,238,815,  an  increase  of 
67  per  cent,  over  the  1907-08  figures. 

The  aeroplane  corps  is  specially  effective,  and  the  1914  air  fleet  includes: 
14  dirigibles  (8  more  building)  and  612  aeroplanes. 


FRANCE 


115 


OLDER    2ND    CLASS    BATTLESHIP    "BOUVET" 


BATTLESHIP  "DANTON" 


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116 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


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117 


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119 


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THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


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THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


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123 


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WILLIAM  II 


THE  CROWN  PRINCE  FREDERICK  WILLIAM 


130 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


THE  EMPRESS  AUGUSTA  VICTORIA 


CROWN  PRINCESS  CECILIE  AND  HER  CHILDREN 


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EMPEROR  WILLIAM   AND   HIS  SIX   SONS 


WILLIAM  II 


Prince  Frederick  William  Victor  Albert  (William  II),  King  of  Prussia  and 
German  Emperor,  was  born  at  Berlin  on  January  27,  1859,  of  Emperor  Frederick 
III  and  the  Empress  Victoria  (Princess  Royal  of  Great  Britain).  Following 
the  military  tradition  of  his  house,  he  entered  on  his  military  training  at  an  early 
age,  and  in  1869  was  made  a  second  lieutenant.  In  1874  he  entered  the  gymna- 
sium of  Cassel,  following  the  will  of  his  grandfather,  Emperor  William  I,  who 
wished  his  education  to  bring  him  in  contact  with  all  classes  of  his  people.  From 
there  he  went  to  Bonn,  where  his  special  attention  was  given  to  law  and  political 
sciences,  and  in  1879  he  began  his  military  service.  As  a  young  man,  however, 
he  was  not  popular.  With  the  exception  of  King  Christian  of  Denmark,  who 
sympathized  with  him,  none  understood  his  restless,  sensitive,  active,  aggressive 
temperament,  with  its  sudden  fits  of  melancholy,  though  all,  even  Bismarck,  saw 
that  he  would  rule  alone.  His  marriage  was  characteristic  of  him,  for  in  spite  of 
much  opposition,  he  married  on  January  21,  1881,  Princess  Augusta  Victoria,  the 
poverty-stricken  daughter  of  Duke  Frederick  of  Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg- 
Augustenburg.  The  marriage,  which  has  been  very  happy,  won  over  the  Schles- 
wig-Holsteiners. 

From  his  succession  (June  15,  1888),  he  took  the  reins  of  government  into 
his  own  hands,  and  in  1890  forced  Bismarck,  the  great  Chancellor,  to  retire. 
From  then,  by  force  of  his  personality  and  will,  William  has  been  the  ruling 
influence  of  Germany.  That  he  took  an  exalted  view  of  his  duties  and  re- 
sponsibilities is  shown  in  his  words :  "I  have  vowed  to  Almighty  God  that,  after 
the  example  of  my  forefathers,  I  will  be  a  just  and  clement  chief  to  my  people, 
that  I  will  foster  piety  and  the  fear  of  God,  and  that  I  will  protect  the  peace  and 
protect  the  welfare  of  the  country,  be  helpful  to  the  poor  and  distressed,  and  a 
true  guardian  to  the  right."  He  has  proved  a  modern  ruler,  and  his  coun- 
try's   welfare    and    wonderful    progress    in    industrial    arts    and    commerce    is 


GERMANY 


133 


FOUR  GENERATIONS-EMPEROR  WILLIAM  I,  EMPEROR  FREDERICK  III, 
EMPEROR  WILLIAM    II,   AND    THE    CROWN   PRINCE 


his  monument.  His  tastes  are  strongly  military,  and  he  has  lived  his  life  in 
military  terms.  The  perfection  of  the  army  has  been  his  lifework,  and  to  him 
the  navy  owes  its  great  efficiency.  His  internal  policy  has  been  to  advance 
German  industry,  and  his  foreign  to  build  up  a  merchant  marine  and  secure  an 
outlet  for  the  surplus  energy  of  his  peole.  His  energies  are  untiring,  and  his 
interests  include  literature,  art,  music,  sport,  on  all  of  which  he  can  speak  with 
authority. 

The  Kaiser  and  Kaiserin  have  six  sons  and  a  daughter.  The  Crown 
Prince  Frederick  William  (b.  on  May  6,  1882),  entered  the  army  at  fourteen, 
and  is  thoroughly  familiar  with  all  branches  of  the  service.  On  June  6,  1905,  he 
married  Princess  Cecilie  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  and  the  couple  have  four  sons, 
the  eldest,  Prince  William,  being  his  grandfather's  favorite.  Prince  William  Eitel 
Frederick  (b.  on  July  7,  1883),  married  in  1906  Princesss  Sophie  Charlotte  of 
Oldenberg.  Prince  Adalbert  (b.  in  1884),  the  third  son,  is  now  serving  with  the 
fleet.  Prince  August  William  (b.  in  1887),  is  also  in  the  army.  He  has  devoted 
his  attention  to  law  and  medicine,  taking  his  doctor's  degree  in  jurisprudence ;  in 
1908  he  married  his  cousin,  the  Princess  Victoria  of  Schleswig-Holstein. 
Princes  Oscar  (b.  in  1888)  and  Joachim,  the  youngest  son  (b.  in  1890),  are  also 
in  the  army.  The  Kaiser's  youngest  child,  his  merry  "Princess  Sunshine,"  the 
Princess  Victoria  Louise,  was  married  in  1913  to  Prince  Ernest  August  of 
Cumberland.  The  Kaiser  conferred  on  the  young  couple  the  title  of  King 
and  Queen  of  Brunswick,  and  they  have  a  young  son. 


THE  HOUSE  OF  HOHENZOLLERN 


The  imperial  family  name  is  taken  from  the  castle  of  Hohenzollern,  which 
was  built  on  the  hill  of  Zollern,  near  Hechingen  in  Suabia,  and  the  family 
traces  its  descent  from  Count  Thassilo,  a  Suabian  noble,  who  lived  about  900. 
Berthold  (d.  1088),  in  his  "Chronicon,"  mentions  Burkhard  and  Wezil 
(Werner)  of  Zollern.  Burkhard's  grandson,  Frederick  H,  was  a  favorite  of 
the  German  Kings,  Lothair  and  Conrad  IH,  and  the  family  occupied  a  prom- 
inent position  among  the  petty  princely  families  of  Suabia  during  the  eleventh 
century.  Frederick  HI,  by  his  marriage  with  Sophia,  daughter  of  Conrad, 
Burgrave  of  Nuremberg,  succeeded  his  father-in-law  about  1192,  and  acquired 
lands  in  Franconia  and  Austria.  His  sons,  Conrad  and  Frederick,  ruled  in 
common  until  1227,  when  Conrad  became  Burgrave  of  Nuremberg,  thus 
founding  the  Franconian  line,  and  Frederick  took  the  Zollern  lands  and 
founded  the  Suabian  branch.  The  Franconian  line  attached  itself  to  the 
Hohenstaufens,  and  on  the  extinction  of  that  line  to  the  Hapsburgs,  Fred- 
erick HI,  Burgrave  of  Nuremberg,  supporting  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg  in  1248. 
During  the  war  of  1314,  the  Hohenzollerns  sided  against  the  Austrian  house, 
but  subsequently  became  its  ally.  Capacity  to  acquire  and  retain  land  as 
well  as  ability  to  rule  with  thrift  were  characteristics  of  the  Franconian 
Hohenzollerns.  In  1346  Burgrave  John  H  became  Governor  of  Brandenburg 
and  in  1415  Emperor  Sigismund  gave  Frederick  VI  Brandenburg  as  his 
hereditary  possession,  and  made  him  first  elector.  The  history  of  this  branch 
of  the  house  is  identified  with  that  of  Brandenburg  until  in  1701  Frederick 
III  of  Brandenburg  became  King  of  Prussia.  The  Prussian  Hohenzollerns 
consolidated  their  kingdom  and  Frederick  the  Great  Elector  and  Frederick 
II  the  Great  made  it  the  important  German  state.  Under  Frederick  William  I, 
Prussia  took  the  lead  in  securing  the  unity  of  the  German  Empire,  and  in 
1871  was  chosen  German  Emperor.     His  grandson  is  the  present  Kaiser. 

The  Suabian  line  had  gradually  lost  considerable  territory  by  the  several 
divisions  of  its  lands,  but  regained  prominence  in  the  person  of  Count  Eitel 
Frederick  II,  who  received  Haigerloch  from  the  Emperor  Maximilian.  His 
grandson,  Charles  (d.  1576),  received  from  the  Emperor  Charles  V,  the  coun- 
ties of  Sigmaringen  and  Vohringen.  At  his  death  the  lands  were  divided 
among  his  three  sons,  Eitel  Frederick  IV  taking  Hohenzollern,  with  the  title 
t.>f  Hohenzollern-Hechingen,  Charles  II,  Sigmaringen  Vohringen,  with  the  title 
of  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,  and  Christopher  Haigerloch  (this  line  died 
out  in  1634).  In  1695,  the  two  branches  of  the  family  entered  into  an  agree- 
ment with  the  Brandenburg  line,  by  which  it  was  provided  that  on  the 
extinction  of  either  line,  possession  should  pass  to  the  other  and  on  the 
extinction  of  both  should  pass  to  Brandenburg.    After  the  revolutionary  trou- 


GERMANY 


135 


PRINCE  HENRY  OF  PRUSSIA 

bles  of  1848,  however,  the  Princes  of  Hohenzollern-Hechmgen  and  Hohen- 
zollern-Sigmaringen  resigned  their  principalities,  which  accordingly  went  to 
the  King  of  Prussia,  and  received  from  him  annual  pensions,  and  the  title  of 
"highness"  with  the  prerogatives  of  younger  sons  of  the  royal  family.  The 
Hohenzollern-Hechingens  became  extinct  in   1869.     Prince   Leopold,  whose 


IMPERIAL   YACHT    HOHENZOLLERN 


candidacy  to  the  throne  of  Spain  precipitated  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  was 
the  eldest  son  of  the  last  of  the  Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen  ruler.  Prince  Carl 
Anton ;  the  second  son,  Charles,  became  King  of  Roumania  in  1881,  and  should 
he  .die  childless  the  succession  would  fall  to  his  nephew  Ferdinand,  son  of 
Leopold. 


HISTORY 

Previous  to  the  campaigns  of  Julius  Caesar,  the  lands  now  forming  the 
German  Empire  were  occupied  by  barbarian  tribes,  chiefly  of  Celtic,  Gothic 
and  Slavonic  origin.  The  Romans  mention  the  Gauls,  Burgundians,  Marco- 
manni,  Alamanni,  etc.  They  were  in  constant  conflict  with  the  Romans,  and  the 
leadership  passed  from  one  tribe  to  another.  During  the  time  of  Clovis,  the 
Saxons  dwelt  between  the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe,  the  Alamanni  occupied  what  was 
later  called  Suabia,  the  Francs,  Franconia,  and  the  Bavarians,  Bavaria.  Under 
Charlemagne  the  German  tribes  were  united  for  the  first  time  under  a  single 
ruler  and  converted  to  Christianity.  By  the  treaty  of  Verdun  (843),  which  di- 
vided the  Empire  of  Charlemagne  among  his  sons,  the  lands  east  of  the  Rhine 
and  the  lands  around  Mainz,  Worms  and  Spires  went  to  Louis  the  German,  and 
for  the  first  time  the  people  had  a  leader  whose  authority  was  confined  to  his 
own  territory.  The  beginnings  of  a  national  life  may  be  traced  from  this  period. 
By  the  treaty  of  Mersen  (870),  between  Louis  and  Charles  the  Bald  of  France. 
Germany  obtained  additional  territory,  and  assumed  the  proportions  which  it 
retained  during  the  Middle  Ages  It  was  bounded  by  the  Elbe  and  the  Rhine., 
the  Bohemian  Mountains,  and  included  Alsace-Lorraine  and  the  Archbishopric? 
of  Mainz,  Trier,  Cologne,  Salzburg  and  Bremen.  The  country  was  divided 
into  the  duchies  of  Saxony,  Bavaria,  Franconia,  Suabia  and  Lorraine.  During 
this  time  feudalism  was  introduced,  and  the  power  of  the  nobles  began  to  over- 
shadow that  of  the  King. 

Henry  I  of  Saxony,  chosen  King  in  912,  vindicated  somewhat  the  authority 
of  the  king  against  the  nobles,  overcame  the  Wends  and  the  Hungarians,  planned 
a  new  system  of  cavalry,  and  established  the  Margraviates  of  North  Saxony  and 
Meissen.  His  successor.  Otto  I  the  Great,  elected  king  in  936,  crushed  the  power 
of  the  nobles,  conquered  the  Magyars,  acquired  the  crown  of  Lombardy,  and 
received  from  the  Pope  the  imperial  crown.  His  successors  followed  his  ex- 
ample, and  the  sovereign  crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  claimed  as  his  due,  corona- 
tion as  Emperor  from  the  hand  of  the  Pope  at  Rome.  Thus  grew  up  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire,  though  Germany  itself  remained  a  State  of  divided  nations.  They 
had,  however,  a  certain  consciousness  of  national  life,  as  is  witnessed  by  the  use  of 
the  word  deutsch  to  indicate  the  whole  people.  After  the  death  of  Otto,  the  power 
of  the  Emperor  declined,  though  Henry  III  (1039)  wielded  almost  absolute  au- 
thority. The  Franconian  line  died  out  in  1125  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Hohen- 
staufens,  who  ruled  Germany  from  1138-1208  and  from  1215-54.  This  period  saw 
the  rise  of  the  minnesingers,  the  building  of  many  magnificent  cathedrals,  and  the 
introduction  of  Roman  law  from  Italy.     The  last  of  the  Hohenstaufens  proved 


GERMANY  137 


weak  and  ineffectual  and  the  country  was  divided  into  a  number  of  rival  duchie? 
and  principalities.  The  right  to  elect  the  emperor  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  a 
few  nobles.  At  the  election  of  1257  seven  only  attended — the  Archbishops  of 
Mainz,  Trier  and  Cologne,  the  Dukes  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria  (who  was  also 
Count  Palatine  of  the  Rhine),  the  Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  and  the  King  oi 
Bohemia.  At  this  time  also  leagues  of  free  cities  were  formed,  the  most  notable 
of  which  were  the  Rhenish  Confederation  and  the  Hanseatic  League. 

In  1273  the  electors  chose  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg  emperor,  and  from  then  until 
the  Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648)  the  country  was  continuously  engaged  in  wars 
domestic  and  foreign  under  such  rulers  as  Louis  IX  (1314)  ;  Charles  IV  (1349), 
who  founded  the  University  of  Prague  and  in  1356  by  the  publication  of  the 
Golden  Bull  definitely  fixed  the  number  of  electors  at  seven  (four  secular  and 
three  ecclesiastical)  ;  Sigismund  (d.  1437,  after  whom  the  imperial  crown  passed 
to  the  Austrian  Hapsburgs)  ;  Maximilian  I  (1486),  who  established  a  supreme 
court  of  the  Empire,  and  acquired  Burgundy  and  the  Netherlands  by  marriage ; 
Charles  V  (d.  1558),  during  whose  reign  Germany  was  united  with  Austria,  and 
included  a  large  territory.  During  this  period  also,  Germany  passed  through  the 
crisis  of  the  Reformation,  suffered  from  internal  revolts  such  as  the  Peasants' 
War,  and  engaged  in  the  wars  against  France.  After  the  Thirty  Years'  Wat 
the  population  of  Germany  had  dwindled  to  barely  6,000,000,  and  she  lost  Metz 
Toul,  Verdun,  Alsace,  Western  Pomerania,  Bremen  and  Verden,  while  Switzer- 
land and  the  United  Provinces  were  made  independent.  Germany  again  became 
a  loose  confederation  of  principalities  and  free  cities.  Any  authority  which  still 
belonged  to  the  Emperor  was  transferred  to  the  Diet,  which  alone  had  the  powei 
of  making  laws,  concluding  treaties  in  the  name  of  Germany,  and  of  declaring 
war.  From  1663  it  became  a  permanent  body  and  was  attended  only  by  the  rep 
resentatives  of  the  princes  and  the  free  cities. 

Of  the  German  states,  Prussia  now  began  to  come  into  prominence.  The 
Emperor  Sigismund  had  given  Brandenburg  to  Frederick,  Count  of  Hohenzollern. 
In  his  hands  and  those  of  his  successors  the  kingdom  flourished.  At  the  time  of 
the  Reformation,  Albert  of  Hohenzollern,  Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic  Order, 
became  a  Protestant,  dissolved  the  order  and  received  in  fief  of  the  King  of 
Poland  the  Duchy  of  Prussia,  which  under  Frederick  William  the  Great  Elector 
of  Brandenburg,  was  declared  independent  of  Poland  (1657).  His  son  Fred- 
erick was  crowned  King  of  Prussia  (January,  1701).  He  laid  the  foundation  ol 
the  future  greatness  of  his  kingdom  by  careful  administration  and  by  the  founda- 


138 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


tion  of  an  excellently  trained  army,  with 
which  his  son,  Frederick  II  the  Great 
was  enabled  to  enter  European  politics. 
He  gained  Silesia  by  the  Seven  Years 
War  (1756-63),  and  West  Prussia  in  the 
partition  of  Poland,  and  left  his  king- 
dom the  foremost  state  of  Germany,  with 
the  reputation  of  a  formidable  army. 
Long-  years  of  peace  weakened  this 
army,  and  in  the  struggle  with  Napoleon 
Prussia  was  completely  defeated.  Her 
humiliation,  however,  proved  her  salva 
tion.  Under  the  inspiring  influence  of 
Queen  Louise,  the  people  roused  them- 
selves to  recover  their  lost  prestige,  and 
under  Stein  the  army  was  re-organized 
and  drilled  to  a  fine  state  of  perfection. 
Napoleon's  retreat  from  Moscow  gave 
Prussia  her  opportunity  in  the  battle  of 
Leipzig  (1813). 

The  Congress  of  Vienna  (1815)  de- 
cided that  Germany  was  to  consist  of  a 
confederation  of  sovereign  states,  and 
during  the  forties  various  ideas  of  a 
united    German    Empire   were   proposed 


FREDERICK  THE  GREAT 


and  schemes  were  offered  for  the  revision 
of  the  constitution.  By  the  Frankfort 
Parliament  it  was  revised  in  a  democratic 
sense,  though  the  imperial  title  was  re- 
tained and  made  hereditary.  It  was  of- 
fered to  Frederick  William  IV  of  Prussia 
who  would  not,  however,  accept  it  with- 
out the  full  sanction  of  the  princes  and 
the  free  cities.  Germany  was  divided 
into  two  camps,  one  siding  with  Prus- 
sian interests  and  the  other  with  Aus- 
trian. The  Italian  War  of  1859  changed 
the  condition  of  affairs.  Prussia  gained 
immensely  in  prestige  and  King  William 
appointed  Bismarck  his  prime  minister 
(1862).  Bismarck  felt  that  the  question 
of  German  unity  could  not  be  settled 
without  war,  and  determined  that,  in  such 
an  event,  Prussia  should  be  ready.  To 
this  end  his  diplomacy  was  devoted  to 
the  aggrandizement  of  Prussian  terri- 
tory and  the  training  of  her  army.  The 
victory  at  Konigsgratz  secured  the  tri- 
umph -of  his  policy,  and  by  the  treaty 


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QUEEN  LOUISE  OF  PRUSSIA 


GERMANY 


139 


THE  PROCLAMATION  AT  VERSAILLES  OF  KING  WILLIAM  I  OF  PRUSSIA 
AS  FIRST  GERMAN  EMPEROR 


PRINCE  OTTO  VON  BISMARCK 


COUNT  VON  MOLTKE 


140 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


of  Prague  the  main  outlines  of  the  proposed  Germar  union  were  marked  out. 
The  leadership  of  the  confederation  was  to  be  hereditary  in  the  kingdom  of 
Prussia,  the  legislative  power  was  to  be  vested  in  a  federal  council  (Bundesrat) 
and  a  Diet  (Bundestag),  elected  by  the  whole  people.  However,  the  South 
German  Confederation  was  in  no  hurry  to  join  with  Prussia  lOO  much  lay 
between  them.  Bismarck  realized  that  only  a  common  interest  would  draw 
them  together,  and  this  he  found  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War  of  1870.  In  this  war 
the  German  states  united,  and  in  1871,  King  William  of  Prussia  was  elected  the 
first  German  Emperor. 

He  was  succeeded  in  1888  by  his  son, 
Frederick,  who  lived  but  a  few  months  after 
his  accession,  when  the  present  Kaiser, 
William  H,  ascended  the  throne.  During  his 
reign  the  empire  has  made  wonderful  strides 
in  industrial  and  commercial  prosperity.  The 
foundation  of  a  colonial  empire  was  begun  in 
1884,  a  first-class  navy  was  built  and  the  coun- 
try took  its  place  as  one  of  the  foremost 
powers  in  Europe,  and  with  the  formation  of 
the  Triple  Alliance,  Germany  hoped  to  make 
secure  that  position. 

The  area  of  the  German  Empire,  includ- 
ing Alsace-Lorraine,  is  208,830  sq.  mi.,  and 
the  population  numbered  64,925,993  in  1910, 
showing  an  increase  of  4,284,504  over  the  1905 
census.  Agriculture  is  a  very  considerable 
industry,  employing  about  10,000,000  and  the 
mining  which  is  carried  on  chiefly  in  Prussia 
and  Saxony  and  other  manufacturing  indus- 
tries, employ  more  than  11,000,000.  The 
industries  have  been  developed  enormously 
in  recent  years,  and  in  actual  tonnage  Ger- 
many stands  second  in  the  world.  According 
to  the  statistics  of  1913-14  the  imports 
amounted  to  $2,754,275,000,  and  the  exports 
to  $2,274,875,000. 
The  German  colonies  include: 

Africa:     Kamerun  (1884,  1911 ;  298,400  sq.  mi.;  pop.  3,748,720),  Togoland 
(1884;  33,700  sq.  mi. ;  pop.  1,031,978),  German  Southwest  Africa  (1884- 
90;    322,650   sq.    mi.;   pop.   94,386),   German    East   Africa    (1885-90; 
384,180  sq.  mi.;  pop.  7,651,106). 
Asia :    Kiau-Chau  ( 1897 ;  200  sq.  mi. ;  pop.  168,000) . 

The  Pacific :  German  New  Guinea,  including  Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land  ( 1885- 
86),  Bismarck  Archipelago  (1885),  Caroline  Islands  (1899),  Pelew 
Islands  (1899),  Marianne  Islands  (1899),  Solomon  Islands  (1886), 
Marshall  Islands  (1886),  etc.  (95,160  sq.  mi.;  pop.  601,427),  and  the 
Samoan  Islands  (1899;  1,000  sq.  mi.;  pop.  35,000). 

According  to  the  Constitution  of  April  16,  1871,  all  the  states  of  Germany 
form  an  "eternal"  union  with  the  direction  of  political  and  military  affairs  vested 
in  the  King  of  Prussia,  who  in  this  capacity  bears  the  title  of  German  Emperor. 
In  his  office  the  Emperor  is  assisted  by  a  federal  council  (Bundesrat),  which 
represents  the  governments  of  the  individual  states  and  free  cities,  and  by  the 
Reichstag,  which  represents  the  German  nation.  The  Emperor  has  no  veto  on 
the  laws  passed  by  these  bodies.     The  Reichstag  is  composed  of  397  members. 


EMPEROR  WILLIAM  I 


GERMANY 


141 


and  is  elected  by  the  people  for  the  term- of  five  years;  the  Bundesrat  consists 
of  61  delegates  appointed  by  the  governments  of  the  individual  states  for  each 
session.  The  executive  power  remains  with  the  Emperor,  and  he  holds  the  right, 
with  the  consent  of  the  Bundesrat,  to  declare  war  (if  defensive),  make  peace, 
enter  into  treaties,  and  appoint  and  receive  ambassadors.  He  is  supreme  head 
of  the  army,  but  there  is  a  separate  minister  of  war  for  the  kingdoms  of  Prussia, 
Saxony,  Wiirttemberg  and  Bavaria,  the  minister  of  war  for  Prussia  acting  for  all 
the  other  states. 


1.  Collar  of  the  Order  of  the  Crown. 

2.  Chain  of  the  Order  of  the  Black  Eagle. 

3.  Order   .f  William. 

4.  (a   and   b)    Military    Order   of    Merit. 

5.  Military    Order    of  Bavaria. 

6.  Order   of  the   Black   Eagle. 

7.  Hohenzollern   Order. 

8.  Star  of  the   Red  Eagle. 


9.  Order  of  Frederick. 

10.  Order  of  the  Lion. 

11.  Order  of  the  Star. 

12.  Civil  Order  •i  Merit. 

13.  Iron  Cross. 

14.  Order  of  the  Crown. 

15.  Order  of  the  Red  Eagle. 

16.  (a  and  b)   Order  of  the  Johannites. 


17.  Order  of  Ludwig  of  Bavaria. 


If   I  T  J    BTl 


142 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


DR.  VON  BETHMANN— HOI.LWEG 
THE   IMPERIAL   CHANCELLOR 


gp:x.  falkenhaym 

War  Minister 


ADMIRAL  VON  TIRPITZ 
Chief  of  the  Marine 


COUNT   HELMUTH   VON   MOLTKE 
Chief  of  Staflf  of  the  Army 


THE  ARMY 


Before  the  unification  of  the 
German  Empire,  the  several 
states  possessed  distinct  armies, 
federal  armies  when  required  be- 
ing formed  from  the  contingents 
which  the  members  of  the  union 
agreed  to  furnish,  after  the  plan 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire. 
This  state  of  affairs  continued 
until  1870,  when  the  separate 
armies  of  the  old  confederation  were  remodelled,  on  Prussian  lines  into  the 
German  Army. 

The  Prussian  Army  dates  from  about  1630,  and  during  the  Thirty  Years 
War,  owing  to  poor  equipment,  suffered  severely,  but  Frederick  the  Great 
Elector,  who  paid  careful  attention  to  the  training  of  his  army,  avenged  these 
reverses  at  Fehrbellin  (1675).  The  Prussian  army  joined  in  the  various  wars 
of  the  period,  acquitting  itself  honorably  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Suc- 
cession on  many  fields  from  Blenheim  to  Malplaquet.  Frederick  William 
I  of  Prussia  entrusted  the  task  of  re-orgainzing  the  army  to  Leopold  of 
Anhalt-Dessau,  who  devoted  the  years  from  1715  to  1740  to  the  work  of 
training.  He  had  introduced  in  1700  iron  ramrods  into  the  infantry  service, 
and  drilled  the  infantry  to  a  point  of  perfection  in  which  it  was  superior 
to  even  the  Austrian  and  French,  and  though  the  cavalry  had  been  neglected, 
the  infantry  was  able  to  win  the  earlier  battles  of  Frederick  the  Great.  He 
devoted  himself  to  the  reform  of  the  cavalry,  with  results  shown  in  the  vic- 
tories of  Hohenfriedberg  (1745),  Rossback  (1757),  Leuthen  (1757)  and  Zorn- 
dorf  (1758).  Before  the  end  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  however,  the  old 
infantry  had  been  replaced  by  foreigners,  deserters  and  vagabonds,  and  when 
Frederick  was  dead,  his  successors  were  unable  to  manage  these  heterogeneous 
elements.  They  did  little  for  the  army,  which,  though  it  remained  formidable 
in  appearance,  fell  to  pieces  before  the  onslaught  of  Napoleon.  The  sting  of 
the  French  yoke  finally  roused  the  people,  and  the  armies  (trained  under 
Stein)  sent  to  the  campaign  of  1813  were  actuated  by  a  national  feeling. 
Prussia  then  devoted  strict  attention  to  the  establishment  of  the  army. 
Universal  compulsory  service  was  adopted,  and  .b^_  the  law  of  1814  the 
periods  of  service  were  fixed  at  3  years  in  .the  army,  2  in  the  reserve,  14  in 


144 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


TATAR  AND  UHLAX  (1741) 


UHLAN   (1807) 


GERMANY 


14'5 


GUARD  UHLAN  (1810) 

the  Landzvehr,  and  an  annual  contingent  of  40,000  was  called  for,  which  was 
raised  by  the  law  of  1860  to  63,000  when  the  period  of  the  reserve  was 
increased  to  4  years  and  in  the  Landwehr  reduced  to  5. 

The  Saxon  Army  distinguished  itself  in  the  wars  of  its  country,  par- 
ticularly in  those  against  Poland.  With  the  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Prus- 
sians at  Kesseldorf  (1745),  it  lost  its  reputation,  and  after  Pirna  (1756),  the 
men  were  obliged  to  join  the  Prussian  army  for  the  remainder  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  though  a  few  outlying  regiments  escaped  to  join  the  Austrians, 
and  had  the  satisfaction  of  defeating  the  Prussians  at  Kolin  (1757).  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution,  the  Saxon  army  numbered  about  30,000. 
It  fought  at  Jena  with   Prussia,  and  during  the  French  domination,  joined 


146 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


SOLDIERS  OF  THE  PAST 


BOY  SCOUTS.  SOLDIERS  OF  THE  FUTURE 


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GERMANY 


149 


SAXON  CAVALRY 


Napoleon,  who  rewarded  the  Elector  of  Saxony  by  recognizing  him  as  king 
and  increasing  his  territory.  After  Leipzig  (1813),  the  King  lost  much  of 
his  lands  and  the  army  was  reconstituted  on  a  smaller  scale.  Saxony  shared 
with  Austria  the  defeat  of  Konigsgratz  (1866),  though  the  army  was  dis- 
tinguished for  its  courage  and  steadiness.  Saxony  joined  the  North  German 
Confederation,  and  her  army  formed  the  XII  corps  of  the  Great  German 
army  and  delivered  the  decisive  blow  at  Gravelotte  (1870).  The  Saxon  army 
is  now  organized  on  Prussian  lines,  and  forms  2  army  corps  of  the  German 
army.  The  Emperor,  with  the  King  of  Saxony,  names  the  officers  for  higher 
commands,  but  Saxony  retains  her  separate  war  minister  and  budget. 

The  Bavarian  Army  also  dates  from  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  in  which 
the  forces  commanded  by  Count  Tilly  won  great  fame  at  the  battles  of  White 
Mountain  (1620),  Stadlton  (1623)  and  Lutter  (1626).  The  army  took  part 
in  almost  every  war  between  France  and  Austria,  and  served  under  Napoleon 
in  the  campaigns  of  1805-06,  for  which  services  Napoleon  made  Bavaria  a 
kingdom.  Bavaria  fought  against  Prussia  in  1866,  but  was  defeated,  and 
joined  with  her  in  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  distinguishing  itself  at  Sedan 
and  on  the   Loire. 


150 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


BAVARIAN  INFANTRY  CHARGE 


The  Wiirttemberg  arm  joined  the  Bavarians  in  1866,  but  after  1870  went 
into  the  Empire.  The  Hanoverian  and  Hessian  armies  (which  furnished 
troops  to  Great  Britain  during  the  American  War  of  Independence)  also 
joined  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War. 

According  to  the  constitution  of  April  16,  1871,  all  the  land  forces  of  the 
Empire  must  form  a  united  army  in  peace  and  war,  and  must  unconditionally 
obey  the  Emperor's  orders,  though  the  Bavarian  soldiers  are  exempt  from 
taking  the  oath  of  fidelity  in  time  of  peace. 

Military  service  begins  at  the  age  of  20  (in  time  of  war  volunteers  of 
17  may  be  called  for),  and  each  soldier  spends  7  years  in  the  regular  army 


LOCATING  THE  ENEMY.  QUICK-FIRING  GUN 


GERMANY 


151 


CAVALRY  PARADE  IN  MUNICH 

(including  years  spent  in  the  reserve).  For  the  5  following  years  he  is  with  the 
1st  Levy  of  the  Landwehr  or  2nd  Line  Army,  and  trains  during  this  time  for  two 
periods  of  from  8  to  14  days.  Until  March  31st  of  the  year  in  which  he 
completes  his  39th  year,  he  belongs  to  the  2nd  Levy  of  the  Landzvehr,  but 
undergoes  no  training  during  this  period.  During  their  service  in  the  regular 
army,  members  of  the  cavalry  and  horse  artillery  spend  three  years  with  the 
colors,  while  those  in  the  other  branches  of  the  service  spend  two.  All 
soldiers  finally  pass  for  6  years  into  the  2d  ban  of  the  Landsturm,  a  body 
purely  for  home  defence.  The  first  ban  of  the  Landsturm  is  comprised  of 
untrained  men  ranging  from  17  to  39  years  of  age.  University  young  men 
are  admitted  as  volunteers  and  serve  one  year,  defraying  their  own  expenses. 
They  supply  almost  all  the  reserve  and  Landwehr  officers.  The  Ersata 
reserve  is  composed  of  men  of  20  who  are  in  excess  of  the  numbers  required 


STUDYING    A    MAP    DURING    MANOEUVRES 


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THE  EMPEROR  AT  MANOEUVRES 


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CUIRASSIERS 


154 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


for  the  annual  recruits,  and  they  receive  3  trainings  of  10,  6  and  4  weeks 
respectively.  This  force  supplies  the  waste  of  war  and  some  of  its  members 
are  also  trained  in  special  non-combatant  duties. 

Germany  revises  her  military  policy  every  5  years.  A  law  was  passed 
in  1911  to  secure  a  peace  strength  of  515,221  by  1915-16,  but  before  it  could 
be  fulfilled,  Germany,  fearing  lest  a  change  in  the  balance  of  military  power 
should  result  on  account  of  the  first  Balkan  War,  startled  the  world  by  increas- 
ing (1912)  her  peace  strength  by  136,000  men.  And  in  1913,  5  aeroplane 
oattalions,  mustering  17  companies,  were  added  to  the  24  dirigibles  already 
in  military  charge.  The  army  now  consists  of:  651  battalions  ,  555  squadrons, 
633  batteries,  226  batteries  of  heavy  and  fortress  artillery,  44  pioneer  bat- 
talions, with  certain  technical  troops  in  addition,  21  of  communication  troops 
and  26  of  train,  all  these  units  at  a  high  piece  eflfective. 

The  following  table  gives  the  peace  establishment  in  1913 : 

Non.  Com.  Officers 

Officers  &  Men 

Infantry,  217  regiments    16,578  471,796 

Rifies  (Jager),  18  battalions   620  15,134 

Machine   gun   sections,  26 134  2,294 

District   Headquarters,  317    1,067  6,593 

Cavalry,  110  regiments   3,696  82,007 

Field  Artillery,   100  regiments    4,692  86,777 

Foot  Artillery,  24  regiments   1,469  33,230 

Pioneers,  35  battalions    1,046  22,999 

Railway,  telegraph  balloon  units   935  18,006 

Train,  25   battalions    631  10,961 

Small   miscellaneous   corps 785  2,040 

Staff,   etc 3,651  1,660 

Total   35,304  753,497 

The  total  war  strength  approximates  4,350,000  men,  including  the  field 
army  and  its  reserve  formation,  the  Landwehr  (1,800,000)  and  trained  men 
of  the  Landsturm  (800,000),  but  the  highly  trained  and  vigorous  1st  line 
would  perhaps  not  greatly  exceed  1,500,000. 


GERMANY 


157 


1.  10.5    CM.    SIEGE    GUN.      2.  28    CM.    MORTAR    GUN.      3.  7.5    CM.    ANTI-AIR 
CANNON.     4.  7.5  CM.  MOUNTAIN  GUN. 


FIELD  ARTILLERY  IN  ACTION 


158 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR 


LAND  BATTERY   FIRING  AGAINST  BATTLESHIPS 


PIONEERS  CONSTRUCTING  A  BRIDGE 


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THE  ARMY  IN  THE  FIELD 


164 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


FIELD  BATTERY  IX  ACTION 


CAVALRY  CROSSING  A  RIVER 


THE  NAVY 


As  early  as  1848  the  German  people  urged  the  construction  of  a  fleet  and 
a  few  men-of-war  were  built,  but  the  Bundestag,  or  Federal  Council,  was  not 
in  sympathy  with  the  movement  and  it  was  accordingly  dropped.  Prussia, 
however,  began  laying  the  foundations  of  a  small  navy,  and,  on  the  annexa- 
tion of  Holstein  in  1864,  obtained  possession  of  the  important  port  of  Kiel, 
which  has  since  been  strongly  fortified.  In  1869,  Wilhelmshaven  (which  had 
been  purchased  from  Oldenburg  in  1854)  was  opened  as  a  strong  war  port. 
The  navy,  however,  was  of  slow  growth,  and  in  1868  consisted  only  of  45 
steamers  (including  2  ironclads)  and  44  sailing  vessels.  Even  after  the  for- 
mation of  the  North  German  Confederation,  when  it  took  on  the  common 
federal  interest,  the  navy  did  not  add  to  the  Empire's  prestige.  Since  October 
1,  1867,  all  ships  have  sailed  under  the  flag  bearing  the  black,  white  and  red, 
with  the  Prussian  eagle  and  iron  cross.  But  towards  the  end  of  the  19th 
century  Germany  inaugurated  the  naval  policy  which  in  July,  1914,  gave  them  a 
fleet  second  only  to  the  British. 

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COMMODORE 


DIVISION 
FLAG 


IMPERIAU 
STANDARD 


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FISHERY    CRUISER 


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GERMANY. 


167 


THE  EMPEROR  HIDING  EGGS  FOR  THE  EASTER  HUNT  FOR  THE  MARINES 


In  March,  1889,  the  naval  administration  was  transferred  from  the  min- 
istry to  the  imperial  admiralty,  or  Reic hs marine amt,  and  entrusted  to  the 
naval  Secretary  of  State.  The  chief  command  was  then  also  separated  and 
vested  in  a  naval  officer,  who  controls  the  general  movements  of  the  fleet 
and  deals  with  questions  concerning  coast  defence  and  training  and  efficiency 
of  ihe  personnel.  The  naval  Secretary  of  State  has  charge  of  the  Imperial 
arsenals  and  dockyards  and  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  material,  clothing,  etc. 
The  Law  of  June  14,  1900  provided  that  the  fleet  should  always  be  maintained 
at  a  strength  of  Z7  battleships,  20  armored  cruisers,  32  small  cruisers,  144 
torpedo  boats,  and  72  submarines ;  in  1909  this  law  was  amended  and  pro- 
vided that  by  1917  the  strength  of  the  fleet  should  include  41  battleships,  20 
armored  cruisers,  38  smaller  cruisers,  144  torpedos  and  72  submarines,  and 


DREADNOUGHT  "HELIGOLAND" 


168 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


DREADNOUGHT  "OLDENBURG" 


that  no  battleship  should  be  older  than  20  years  and  no  torpedo  boat  older 
than  12. 

The  navy  is  manned  by  the  obligatory  service  of  the  maritime  population 
— sailors,  fishermen,  ships'  carpenters,  and  others — and  of  the  semi-maritime 
population,  or  those  who  have  smaller  experience  of  the  sea,  as  well  as  by 
volunteers  who  prefer  naval  service  to  military.  Since  great  inducements  are 
held  out  for  able  seamen  to  volunteer  in  the  navy,  the  number  of  these  in 
recent  years  has  been  very  large.  Out  of  a  total  seafaring  population  of  80,000, 
48,000  are  serving  in  the  merchant  navy  at  home  and  about  6,000  in  foreign 
merchant  navies.  The  naval  personnel  counts  about  73,000  officers  and  men,  plus  a 
1st  line  reserve  of  about   110,000,  and  is  especially  efficient  in  torpedo  service. 


BATTLESHIP  "SCHWABEN^ 


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170 


THE  FX'ROPEAN  WAR. 


ARMORED   CRUISER  "ROON' 


Practically  the  entire  fleet  is  always  in  commission.     The  estimated  expenditures, 
of  the  navy  in  1909  were :    $104,982,025  ;  and  early  in  1914,  $111,988,035. 

The  peace  strength  of  the  fleet  is : 

Effective  at  end  of 

1913         1914  1915 

Dreadnoughts    17  19  21 

Pre-Dreadnought  Battleships 20  20  20 

Coast  service  Battleships  28  28 

Battle   Cruisers    3  5  7 

Armored  Cruisers   9  9  9 

Protected   Cruisers    36  38  38 

Cruisers  and  Gunboats 14  13  15 

Destroyers    < 140  152  164 

Torpedo  boats  (old)   47  47  47 

Submarines    21  27 

Hydroplanes    10  30 

The   fleet   is   divided   between   the   Baltic    (Kiel)  and   the    North    Seas 

(Wilhelmshaven),  which  are  strategically  linked  by  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal 
across  the  Schleswig-Holstein  Peninsula. 


SPECIAL  SUBMARINE  SHIP  "VULCAN" 


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172 ''• '  ''  '  -'"  '''•'    '  '  "  •  ''""rHE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


DREADNOUGHT   "KAISER" 


SMALL  CRUISER  "  DRESDEN" 


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174 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


SMALL  CRUISER  "KARLSRUHE" 


BATTLESHIP   "PRINZREGENT   LUITPOLD' 


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THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


BATTLESHIP    "LOTHRINGEN' 


ARMORED    CRUISER    "BLUECHER' 


DESTROYER  "D  9" 


GERMANY. 


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BATTLESHIP  "PREUSSEN" 


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INTERIOR  OF  SUBMARINE 


178 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


FLEET  OF  SUBMARINES 


SUBMARINE  "U  16" 


SUBMARINE  "  U  12" 


GERMANY. 


179 


ZEPPELIN 


AEROPLANE 


180 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


AEROPLANE  CAMP 


TYPES  OF  AEROPLANES 


Ru 


ssia 


NICHOLAS    II 


THE  CZAREVITCH  ALEXIS 
This  Picture  Was  Taken  by  His  Majesty,  the  Czar 


1^"  "' 


'     THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


THE  CZARINA  AND   HER  DAUGHTERS 


THE  EMPRESS  ALEXANDRA  FEODOROVNA 

THE  GRAND  DUCHESS  OLGA 

THE  GRAND  DUCHESS  TATIANA 

IN   UNIFORM   AS   COLONELS 


RUSSIA. 


187 


FATHER  AND  SON 


NICHOLAS   II. 

The  Emperor  Nicholas.  II,  was  born  at  Petrograd  on  May  18,  1868,  of  the 
Emperor  Alexander  III  and  the  Empress  Marie  Feodorovna  (sister  of  Queen 
Alexandra  of  England).  He  was  carefully  educated  as  heir  to  the  throne  and 
began  his  military  career  at  thirteen,  when  he  was  appointed  ataman  of  the  Cos- 
sacks. Special  attention  was  paid  to  the  study  of  mathematics,  the  physical 
sciences  and  political  science.  He  continued  his  military  career,  serving  in  var- 
ious regiments,  among  them  the  famous  Preobrajenski.  He  travelled  con- 
siderably and  in  1890  set  out  with  his  cousin,  Prince  George  of  Greece,  for  a 
tour  of  China,  Japan  and  India.  Previous  to  this  he  had  been  appointed  Presi- 
dent of  the  Commission  to  prepare  designs  for  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  and 
while  in  Vladivostok  in  1891  turned  the  first  sod  for  this  road.  He  returned  to 
Europe  by  the  overland  route. 

He  ascended  the  throne  on  November  1,  1894  and  on  the  26th  of  the  same 
month  married  the  Princess  Alix  of  Hesse-Darmstadt.  Their  coronation  took 
place  at  Moscow  in  May,  1896  with  gorgeous  ceremonial ;  and  in  August  of  the 
same  year,  he  paid  a  series  of  visits  to  the  Emperors  of  Austria  and  Germany, 
the  King  of  Denmark,  the  Queen  of  England  and  the  President  of  France.  In 
1898  he  made  his  famous  peace  proposal  which  led  to  the  first  Peace  Conference 
at  the  Hague  (1889)  and  the  founding  of  the  first  Court  of  Arbitration. 
The  Czar  resembles  somewhat  his  cousin,  King  George  of  England,  but  his  fea- 
tures incline  more  to  the  Slavic  than  Danish  type.     He  is  described  as  having 


188 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


His  tastes  are  simple  and  he  spends  as  much  time  as  possible  with  his  family  at 
Tsarkoe-Selo,  his  palace  about  15  mtiles  from  Petrograd. 

The  imperial  couple  have  five  children.  The  grand  Duchess  Olga  (b.  Novem- 
ber 15,  1895)  is  very  clever  and  is  the  intellectual  member  of  the  family.  The 
next  daughter,  Grand  Duchess  Tatiana  (b.  June  10,  1897),  is  of  a  more  lively 
disposition  and  prefers  long  rides  with  her  father  to  books.  The  Grand  Duchesses 
Marie  (b.  June  26,  1899)  and  Anastasia  (b.  June  18,  1901)  are  still  in  the 
school-room  and  rarely  appear  in  public.  The  youngest  child,  the  Czarevich 
Alexis  (b.  August  12,  1904),  is  the  heir  apparent.  He  met  with  a  serious 
accident  a  few  years  ago,  but  is  rapidly  recovering  his  former  health  and 
vigor. 


THE  CZAR  KISSING  THE 
SENTINEL  ON  THE  MORNING  OF 
EASTER   DAY 


THE  DOWAGER  EMPRESS 
MARIE  FEODOROVNA 

The  Empress  was  the  Princess  Dagmar  of  Denmark 
and  is  the  Sister  of  Queen  Alexandra  of  England 


RUSSIA. 


189 


THE    GRAND    DUKE 
NIKOLAS,     COMMANDER- 
IN-CHIEF  OF  THE  ARMY 


GENERAL       SUKHOM- 

LINOFF,      MINISTER 

OF  WAR 


ADMIRAL     GREGOWITCH, 

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF 

OF  THE  NAVY 


GENERAL  NICHOLAS  JANUCK- 

KEWITCH,  CHIEF  OF  THE 

GENERAL  STAFF 


M.  SAZONOFF 
MINISTER  OF  FOREIGN  AFFAIRS 


THE  HOUSE  OF  ROMANOV 


The  Romanovs  trace  their  descent  from  Andrei 
Kolyla,  who  is  said  to  have  come  to  Moscow  from^ 
Prussia  about  1314.  He  entered  the  service  of 
the  Grand  Duke  Semen  and  acquired  lands.  His 
g-reat-grandson,  Sakhariya  Ivanovich  was  a  boyar  of 
Vasihi  V,  Grand  Duke  of  Moscow  (1425-62).  The 
family  takes  its  name  from  his  grandson,  Roman, 
whose  daughter  Anastasia  Romanovna,  married  Czar 
Ivan  IV.  The  Romanovs  were  also  connected  with 
the  ancient  family  of  Rurik,  through  the  marriage 
of  Anastasia's  brother  with  the  Princess  Eudoxia 
Alexandrovna,  who  was  descended  from  the  Grand 
Dukes  of  Suzdal-Vladimir.  The  Romanovs  passed 
through  a  period  of  decline  during  the  troubles 
which  followed  the  death  of  Ivan  IV  the  Terrible, 
but  later  recovered  their  fortunes.  In  1610,  Feodor 
was  imprisoned  by  the  King  of  Poland,  but  on  ac- 
count of  his  virtues  and  piety  was  held  in  high  re- 
pute. He  was  released  and  made  Patriarch  of  Moscow,  and  his  son,  Michael 
was  elected  Czar  in  1613.  His  descendants  ruled  until  1730  when  the  male 
line  became  extinct  and  the  succession  was  continued  through  the  female  line. 
Peter  the  Great's  eldest  daughter,  Anna,  had  married  Charles  Frederick  of 
Holstein-Gottorp.  With  the  accession  of  her  son,  Peter  III  (1762),  begins 
the  present  reigning  dynasty  of  Holstein-Gottorp  or  Oldenburg-Romanov. 

The  House  of  Oldenburg-Holstein,  which  has  furnished  so  many  sovereigns 
to  Europe  and  now  counts  among  its  members  the  Kings  of  Denmark,  Greece 
and  Norway,  has  been  very  closely  connected  with  the  Russian  royal  house.  All 
the  Czars  since  Peter  III  have  married  German  princesses  and  hence  German 
and  Danish  influences  have  been  very  pronounced  in  Russia  during  the  19th 
century.  Alexander  III  married  Princess  Dagmar  of  Denmark,  and  their  son, 
Nicholas  II,  is  thus  connected  with  the  royal  family  of  Denmark,  and  through 
his  aunt,  Queen  Alexandra  of  England,  with  the  English  royal  family^ 


RULERS  OF  THE  HOUSE  OF  ROMANOV 
Michael  Feodorowitch,   Patriarch   Philaret  of  Moscow,  Father 

of    Michael,    Alexis    Michailowitch 

The  Empress  Elizabeth,  Pet.er  the  Great,  Catherine  H  the  Great 

Alexander  1,  Nicholas  I,  Alexander  H 


HISTORY 

In  the  ninth  century,  a  Slavonic  race  occupied  the  basin  of  the  Dneiper. 
It  is  said  that  the  Slavs  invited  three  brothers.  Rurik,  Sineus  and  Truvor,  to 
come  from  the  North  and  rule  over  them.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  the 
Scandanavians  invaded  in  force  and  settled  around  Novgorod  about  862 ;  Nestor 
calls  these  people  Varangians  and  they  seem  to  have  gradually  amalgamated  with 
the  Slavs.  The  brothers  brought  with  them  Askold  and  Dir,  two  adventurers  like 
themselves.  They  soon  quarreled  with  Rurik  and  set  out  for  Constantinople  to 
find  their  fortune.  On  the  w^ay  they  conquered  Kiev,  a  flourishing  city  in  the 
hands  of  the  Khazars,  and  from  here  in  851  marched  on  Constantinople,  and 
plundered  the  city.  At  the  death  of  his  brothers,  Rurik  annexed  their  dominions 
and  took  the  title  of  Grand  Prince  {Veliki  kniaz).  He  died  in  879  leaving  the 
regency  of  his  lands  and  the  guardianship  of  his  son  Igor  to  Oleg.  Oleg  cap- 
tured Smolensk  and  Kiev,  and  advanced  upon  Constantinople.  Igor  continued 
the  wars  against  the  Greeks,  who  finally  were  glad  to  purchase  peace.  His  son, 
Sviatoslav,  who  was  the  first  prince  to  bear  a  Slavonic  name,  won  fame  in  his 
campaigns  against  the  Petchenegs,  a  Mongol  tribe  inhabiting  the  basin  of  the  Don. 
At  his  death,  according  to  the  apanage  system,  his  territory  was  divided  among  his 
three  sons,  of  whom  the  most  famous  was  Vladimir.  He  had  obtained  Novogorod, 
as  his  share,  but,  after  killing  his  brothers,  became  sole  ruler.  He  also  added 
Galicia,  subdued  some  of  the  Lithuanian  and  Livonian  tribes,  took  Chersoneus 
in  the  Crimea,  and  sought  the  hand  of  the  Princess  Anne  (daughter  of  the 
Byzantine  Emperor)  in  marriage.  This  request  was  granted  on  condition  that 
he  embrace  Christianity.  Accordingly  he  was  baptized  at  Constantinople  in 
988.  On  his  return  to  Kiev  he  converted  the  whole  population.  At  his  death  the 
land  was  divided  among  his  sons,  of  whom  Yaroslav  is  the  most  famous  as  he 
ordered  the  first  codification  of  the  Russian  law,  the  Russkaia  Prarda. 

According  to  the  apanage  system,  which  seems  to  have  prevailed  from  very 
early  times,  the  Russian  land  was  a  huge  family  estate  belonging  to  the  Rurik 
line,  each  member  of  which  considered  himself  entitled  to  a  share  of  it.  It  was 
therefore  divided  into  a  number  of  independent  principalities  held  loosely  together 
by  a  sort  of  patriarchal  authority,  vested  in  the  senior  member  of  the  family, 
who  ruled  in  Kiev,  but  this  position  was  not  hereditary  from  father  to  son.  It 
was  always  given  to  the  senior  member  of  the  dynasty,  and  the  same  principle  was 
applied  to  all  the  other  principalities.  Hence,  with  the  constant  family  quarrels 
and  the  difficulty  of  deciding  the  question  of  seniority,  the  land  was  continually 
being  divided.  From  1054  to  1224,  there  were  64  principalities,  293  princes 
claimed  authority  and  83  civil  wars  were  waged.  Kiev  was  pillaged  again  and 
again  and  finally  left  a  prey  to  barbarian  tribes  from  the  steppe,  and  the  Russians 
were  obliged  to  fall  back  to  the  regions  of  the  Upper  Volga,  where  new  prin- 
cipalities were  formed — Vladimir,  Tver,  Moscow.    The  princes  lost  all  feeling  for 


IVAN    THE   TERRIBLE 


RUSSIA. 


195 


family  relationships  and  were  constant  rivals.  About  this  time  Novogorod  set 
up  a  form  of  municipal  republic.  The  rivalry  between  all  these  left  the  land  an 
easy  prey  to  the  Mongols,  who  settled  themselves  around  the  lower  Volga  and 
for  many  years  received  tribute  from  the  Russians.  Under  Dimitri  Donskoi  of 
Moscow,  the  Russians  united  and  defeated  the  Tatars  in  the  battle  of  Kulikovo 
(1380),  in  which  the  Tatars  are  said  to  have  lost  100,000  men.  This  victory  gave 
immense  prestige  to  the  princes  of  Moscow,  and,  under  Ivan  III  the  Great,  Basil 
and  Ivan  IV  (1462-1584),  Moscow  absorbed  all  the  other  principalities. 

During  the  reign  of  Ivan  III,  who  married  the  niece  of  the  Emperor  Con- 
stantine  Palaeologus  of  Constantinople,  Byzantine  civilization  was  introduced. 
Ivan  IV  was  crowned  Czar  of  all  Russia  in  1547,  annexed  Kazan  and  Astrakan, 
opened  trade  relations  with  England,  by  way  of  the  White  Sea  and  North  Cape, 
and  waged  constant  war  with  Lithuania  and  Poland  in  the  hope  of  gaining  an 
outlet  to  the  Baltic.  His  successors  were  not  able  to  imitate  his  autocratic  power, 
and  the  country  was  in  great  danger  of  falling  to  the  Poles,  when  the  people  rose 
up,  expelled  the  invaders,  and  in  a  grand  national  assembly  elected  as  Czar 
Michael  Romanov,  who  was  connected  by  marriage  with  the  preceding  dynasty. 
The  country  accepted  the  new  family  and  order  was  re-established.  The  Ro- 
manovs did  not  distinguish  themselves  greatly  until  Peter  the  Great  (1689-1725). 
He  ruled  with  a  vigorous  hand,  defeated  Sweden  at  the  battle  of  Poltava  (1709), 
acquired  Ingria,  Karelia,  Livonia,  Esthonia  and  part  of  Finland  by  the  Treaty 
of  Nystad  (1721),  reformed  the  army,  laid  the  foundation  of  the  navy,  intro- 
duced Western  European  customs,  built  his  capital  at  Petrograd,  and  had  himself 
proclaimed  Emperor  of  all  Russia  (1711).  The  male  line  became  extinct  in  1730, 
and  the  accession  passed  into  the  hands  of  members  of  the  female  line  who  had 
intermarried  with  German  princes,  and  German  influences  predominated  under 
such  men  as  Biren,  Mijnnich  and  Ostermann.  Under  the  German  Catherine  II 
(1762-96),  consort  of  Czar  Peter  III,  Russia  was  recognized  as  one  of  the  Great 
Powers.  Catherine  introduced  Western  art  and  literature,  accomplished  admin- 
istrative reforms,  allied  herself  with  Prussia,  England  and  Denmark,  and  secured 
a  considerable  share  of  Poland. 


196  THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


Under  Alexander  I  (1801-25),  liberal  reforms  were  attempted:  the  Council 
of  Empire  was  erected,  the  idea  of  a  constitution  was  discussed,  schemes  of  edu- 
cation proposed,  and  emancipation  of  the  serfs  begun  in  the  Baltic  provinces. 
He  resisted  Napoleon  at  first,  but  concluded  with  him  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit,  by 
which  he  hoped  to  divide  with  Napoleon  the  control  of  Europe.  His  pretensions 
to  power,  however,  caused  Napoleon  to  undertake  the  campaign  of  Moscow, 
which  brought  Napoleon  to  Waterloo  and  Alexander  to  a  predominant  position 
in  European  politics.  Nicholas  I  (1825-55)  reacted  from  the  liberal  policy  of 
Alexander,  reformed  the  army  and  navy,  constructed  railways  and  advanced 
industry  and  commerce.  Alexander  H  (1855-81),  emancipated  the  serfs,  re- 
organized the  judicial  administration  and  inaugurated  local  self-government, 
relaxed  the  strict  censorship  of  the  Press  under  which  a  new  imaginative  and 
critical  literature  arose,  producing  some  of  the  greatest  writers  in  all  Hterature 
(Tolstoy,  Dostoievsky,  Turgeniev).  These  reforms,  however,  had  to  work 
slowly,  and  the  Government  announced  that  nothing  more  was  to  be  done  until 
the  country  had  time  to  adjust  itself.  This  produced  great  dissatisfaction  among 
the  younger  generation,  filled  with  vague  ideas  of  an  indeterminate  millenium. 
and  the  reaction  led  to  the  rise  of  Nihilism.  Though  Alexander's  foreign  policy 
was  not  successful  in  Europe,  in  Asia  it  won  for  him  Siberia.  Upon  the  assasina- 
tion  of  Alexander  II,  Alexander  III  succeeded  and  entered  upon  a  frankly 
reactionary  policy,  and  his  successor,  Nicholas  II  (1894),  has  endeavored 
to  combine  the  policies  of  his  father  and  grandfather.  He  strengthened  relations 
with  France,  joining  the  Triple  Entente,  and  endeavored  to  extend  Russian 
influence  in  the  Far  East,  but  received  a  severe  check  in  the  Russo-Japanese  War 
of  1905.  The  old  liberal  movements  and  conspiracies  now  began  to  revive,  and 
the  Government  decided  to  issue  the  Manifesto  of  October  30,  1905,  promising 
to  convoke  a  legislative  assembly.    The  first  Duma  met  on  May  10,  1906. 

Russia  comprises  one-seventh  of  the  land  surface  of  the  world  and  has  an 
area  in  Europe  of  1,996,743  sq.  mi.  The  total  area,  including  the  Asiatic  posses- 
sions, is  8,647,657  sq.  mi.  The  total  population  is  171,059,900,  which  is  increasing 
at  the  rate  of  2,500,000  per  annum.  Poland  contains  12,776,300,  Finland,  3,140,000, 
Caucasus,  12,288, 1(X),  Siberia,  9,577,900,  and  Central  Asian  possessions,  10,727,- 
CXX).  The  Slavs,  including  the  Poles,  constitute  about  63  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion, Turco-Tartars  about  10  per  cent,  Finns  about  2  per  cent,  and  Jews  about  3 


RUSSIA. 


197 


per  cent ;  the  rest  of  the  population  being  made  up  of  Lithuanians,  Germans, 
Armenians  and  a  variety  of  Asiatic  peoples. 

Since  1905,  Russia  has  been  a  constitutional  monarchy,  ruled  equally  by  the 
Emperor,  the  Duma  and  the  Council  ot  Kmpire.  According  to  the  Law  of  June 
16,  1907,  the  Duma  consists  ot  members  elected  for  5  years  by  the  electoral  bodies 
of  the  governments  and  the  great  cities  (Petrograd,  Moscow,  Warsaw,  Kiev,  Lodz, 
Odessa  and  Riga).  The  council  of  Empire  consists  of  an  equal  number  of  elected 
members  and  members  appointed  by  the  Emperor.  They  serve  9  years ;  one-third 
elected  every  3  years.  No  measure  can  become  a  law  without  the  consent  of  these 
two  houses.  The  power  of  the  Emperor  is  only  limited  by  the  fundamental  laws 
of  the  country,  and  the  crown  descends  in  order  of  primogeniture,  with  preference 
to  the  male  heir.  The  Emperor  is  also  assisted  by  a  council  of  Ministers  (the 
heads  of  the  Imperial  Court,  Foreign  Affairs,  War  and  Marine,  Finance,  Com- 
merce and  Industry,  Interior,  Agriculture,  Ways  and  Communications,  Justice, 
Public  Instruction),  and  dependent  upon  this  are  two  other  councils — the  Holy 
Synod  and  the  Senate. 

The  vast  majority  of  the  population  are  engaged  in  agriculture.  The  country 
is  enormously  rich  in  minerals  of  all  kinds,  but  manufacturing  and  mining  are  only 
beginning  to  be  developed.  The  exports  1913-14  amounted  to  about  $820,000,- 
000;  the  imports  to  $790,295,000. 

The  Russian  dependencies  are : 
Bokhara,  in  Central  Asia  (1868;  83,000  sq.  mi.;  pop.  1,250,000). 
Khiva  (1872;  22,320  sq.  mi. ;  pop.  800,000). 


1.  ORDER  OF  ST.  ANDREW 

2.  MILITARY  ORDER  OF  MERIT 

3.  ORDER  OF  ST.  ALEX.  NEWSKI 

4.  ORDER  OF  ST.  VLADIMIR 

9.  ORDER  OF  ST. 


5.  ORDER  OF  THE  WHITE  EAGLE 

6.  ORDER  OF  ST.  CATHERINE 

7.  ORDER  OF  ST.  STANISLAS 

8.  ORDER  OF  ST.  ANNA 
GEORGE 


198 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


A    COSSACK    OF    THE    DON,    ONE    HUNDRED    YEARS    AGO 


THE  ARMY 


The  early  Russian  armies  were  composed  of  soldiers  recruited  at  first  from 
the  people,  and  called  drowjini.  By  the  16th  century  they  were  recruited  only 
from  the  court  and  the  nobles,  and  were  enrolled  at  the  command  of  the  Czar. 
A.t  each  summons,  the  nobles,  mounted  on  horseback  and  followed  by  their 
retainers  and  slaves,  set  forth,  an  ill-disciplined  and  irregular  force.  Ivan  IV 
the  Terrible  was  the  first  to  organize  infantry.  He  recruited  it  from  the  Cossacks 
as  a  permanent  force  and  it  formed  his  army.  Thus  originated  the  famous 
Strelits.  It  was  a  fierce,  undisciplined  band,  owning  no  law  nor  regular  estab- 
lishment and  was  as  often  to  be  found  in  support  of  the  throne  as  of  the  nobles. 
Michael  Romanov,  fearing  to  disband  so  dangerous  a  force,  called  in  Swedish, 
Dutch  and  Scotch  mercenaries,  but  these  were  not  in  favor  with  the  boyars 
and  soon  broke  their  contract  and  departed.  The  Czar  Alexis  made  great 
eflforts  to  establish  discipline,  appointing  foreign  ofificers,  and  succeeded  in 
holding  in  check  the  Strelits,  which  then  numbered  40,000.  The  Russians  at 
this  time  had  also  artillery  corps,  but  they  were  clumsy,  ill-managed,  and  with- 
out experience. 


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RUSSIA. 


201 


COSSACKS  OF  THE  LIFE  GUARD 


Peter  the  Great  created  the  modern  army,  re-org-anizing  the  old  forces 
on  European  plans.  He  abolished  the  Strelitz  (1698),  established  universal 
conscription  (including  serf  and  slave),  allowed  promotion  from  the  ranks, 
created  the  Imperial  Guard  and  instituted  a  corps  d'  elite  (recruited  from  the 
noble  families  of  Moscow).  This  army  did  good  service  for  Peter  in  his 
wars  with  Charles  XII  of  Sweden  and  two  regiments  of  it  survive  to-day — the 
Preobrazhenski  and  the  Semenovski.  During  the  18th  and  19th  centuries, 
the  army  was  remodelled,  first  on  Prussian  and  then  on  French  lines.  Under 
Alexander  II  (1855-81),  the  general  morale  of  the  troops  was  greatly  im- 
proved and  they  received  better  treatment,  corporal  punishment  was  abolished 
in  the  guard,  and  applied  sparingly  in  the  line.  In  1866,  the  Cossack  army 
of  the  Azov  was  abolished  and  in  1868  the  strength  of  the  active  army  was 
fixed  at  778,000  infantry,  54,000  cavalry,  74,000  artillery  and  17,000  miscel- 
laneous. In  1870  conscription  extended  to  the  nobility  (the  Cossacks  retained 
their  separate  organization).  Under  Alexander  III  (1881-94),  the  time  re- 
quired for  mobilization  was  reduced,  the  cavalry  arm  was  strengthened,  the 
artillery  train  service  reserves  were  increased  and  fortresses  built  along  the 
frontiers.  The  enormous  development  of  Russian  military  power  since  1892 
has  been  the  marvel  of  military  history. 

In  the  Russo-Japanese  War  of  1904-05,  Russia  showed  what  she  could 
do  in  the  way  of  moving  troops  quickly  over  long  distances,  and  the  opera- 
tions generally  proved  that  the  fighting  power  of  the  Russian  maintained 
the  traditions  of  Zorndorf,  Borodino  and  Sevastopol.  The  proverbial  stub- 
bornness of  the  rank  and  file  is  the  distinctive  quality  of  the  Russian  soldiers 
and  adds  a  formidable  element  to  the  armies  of  the  Czar.    Equally  remarkable 


202 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


1 

1 

COSSACKS  OF  THE  VOLGA 


is  the  new  power  of  distribution.  Formerly  it  was  usual  to  count  upon 
one  campaign  at  least  elapsing  before  Russia  could  effectively  join  in  Euro- 
pean wars,  and  the  greater  part  of  her  losses  in  the  Crimean  War  was  due  to 
the  enormous  distances  which  had  to  be  traversed  on  foot,  but  with  the  in- 
crease of  railways  and  the  general  development  of  the  country  these  factors 
have  been  greatly  reduced. 

Profiting  by  the  lessons  of  the  Japanese  War,  Russia  has  thoroughly 
re-organized  her  army,  the  Duma  in  1910  voting  liberal  sums  for  this  pur- 
pose. Three  new  army  corps  were  formed  (Army  of  European  Russia,  Army 
of  the  Caucasus,  and  the  Asiatic  Army).  These  are  practically  distinct  and 
the  term  of  service  varies  slightly  for  each.  The  army  was  also  redistributed, 
a  central  group  being  established  in  the  Moscow-Kazan  region.  The  army 
is  divided  among  27  corps  in  Europe,  3  in  the  Caucasus,  2  in  Turkestan, 
and  5  in  Siberia  and  the  Far  East. 

Military  service  is  universal  and  compulsory,  from  the  age  of  20  to  42. 
About  1,000,000  men  (exclusive  of  Cossacks),  annually  attain  the  age  for  joining 
the  army,  and  exemptions  are  numerous,  as  only  a  little  more  than  one- 
third  are  required  for  service.  Speaking  generally  service  is  for  3  years  in 
the  active  army  (4  in  the  cavalry  and  horse  artillery)  ;  the  soldier  then  passes 


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204 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


into  the  reserve  (Zapas)  for  15  or  14  years,  undergoing  2  periods  of  training 
of  6  weeks  each,  and  then  into  the  territorial  or  Opolchenie  for  5  years.  The 
Opolchenie  is  divided  into  two  classes :  the  first  includes,  besides  the  men  who 
have  served  in  the  active  and  reserve,  the  young  men  surplus  to  the  annual 
contingent,  and  all  are  liable  in  time  of  war ;  the  second  is  the  levy  en  masse 
and  contains  all  those  exempt  from  actual  service,  and  also  the  older  class  of 
the  surplus  men  who  have  all  had  a  certain  amount  of  training. 

In  the  Asiatic  Army,  the  men  are  Russians,  recruited  from  military  colo- 
nists, with  the  exception  of  a  few  Turkomar  irregular  horse  (Jigits).  The 
Cossacks  hold  their  lands  by  military  tenure  and  are  liable  to  service  for  life. 
They  are  almost  entirely  mounted.  Every  Cossack  becomes  liable  to  serve  as 
soon  as  he  has  completed  his  18th  year,  and  finds  his  own  horse  and  equip- 
ment, as  in  the  Indian  Sillader  cavalry.  They  are  trained  for  2  years  at 
home  and  then  enter  the  first  category  regiment  of  their  district,  in  which 
they  remain  4  years.  They  then  pass  for  4  years  to  the  second  category, 
remaining  at  home.  The  next  4  years  are  passed  in  the  third  category,  when  they 
retain  their  equipment  but  no  horses,  and  they  train  for  three  wrecks  each 
year.  Finally  there  is  a  period  of  5  years  in  the  reserve.  Besides  this  every 
Cossack  of  any  age  can  be  called  out  in  time  of  war.  These  rules  apply  to 
Don  Cossacks ;  for  the  others  the  terms  are  slightly  different.  The  peace 
effective  of  the  Cossacks  is  stated  to  be  66,000,  with  52,400  horses,  but  it  is 
probable  that  not  more  than  58,000  are  permanently  with  the  colors.  The 
war  strength  is  given  as  about  150,000. 

The  present  peace  strength  of  the  Russian  army  is  as  follows : — 

Europe  and  the  Caucasus  Asiatic  Russia 

Infantry 627,000  83,000 

Cavalry 116,000  14,000 

Artillery   138,000  15,000 

Engineers 34,000  8,000 

Army  Services 34,000  5,000 

Total 949,000  125,000 

Including  Cossacks  and  Frontier  Guards,  the  total  peace  strength  is 
1,400,000  (80,000  in  Turkestan  and  Semirietschenk  and  28,000  in  Siberia). 

The  war  strength  of  the  active  army  consists  of  about  56,500  officers  and 
2,855,000  men.  To  these  figures  must  be  added  the  available  reserve  (includ- 
ing the  Opolchenie,  estimated  at  1,064,000;  Frontier  battalions,  41,000;  Cossacks, 
150,000,  which  brings  the  war  strength  to  5,400,000  men. 


206'"" 


'  '"-'  THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


CLASSING  THE  REGIMENTAL  C:OLORS 


CAVALRY   USING  THEIR  HORSES   AS  A  SHIELD 


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THE  PAVILOFF  REGIMENT  OF  HOUSEHOLD  TROOPS 


CUIRASSIER  OF  THE 
IMPERIAL  GUARD  IN 
DRESS  UNIFORM 


OFFICER  OF  THE 

IMPERIAL  GUARD  IN  FIELD 

UNIFORM 


SCENES  OF  MILITARY  LIFE 


210- 


;    ;_,■    -vTHE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


EXPLODING  MINES 


COSSACKS  EXECUTING 
A  DARING  FEAT   OF  BALANCE 


CHANGING  THE  GUARD 


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212: 


.•THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


FORTRESS  ARTILLERY 


FIFXD  ARTILLERY 


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RUSSIA. 


215 


STAFF  OFFICERS  CONFERRING 


A  THRILLING  JUMP 


216 


IHE'  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


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AEROPLANE  CORPS 


AEROPLANE  RISING 


THE  CZAR 


THE  NAVY 


To  Peter  the  Great  (1689-1725),  Russia  owes  the  foundation  of  her  navy. 
Previous  to  him  no  serious  attempts  were  made  to  secure  a  fleet  sufficient 
to  protect  her  Black  Sea  coast,  and  the  lack  of  good  harbors  rendered  it 
impossible  to  maintain  one  in  the  north.  Peter,  however,  was  determined  to 
make  his  country  a  maritime  power.  The  White  Sea  was  impracticable, 
Sweden  menaced  the  Baltic,  the  Caspian  alone  remained.  This  was  of  little 
value,  however,  while  the  Turks  held  Azov.  Peter  attempted  to  capture  this 
port  from  the  land  but  failed.  He  saw  that  a  fleet  must  be  obtained.  He 
immediately  sent  to  Prussia  and  Austria  for  as  many  skilled  workmen  as 
money  could  buy,  and  set  them  at  work  in  the  forests  of  the  Don.  He  lived 
with  them  night  and  day,  until  the  fleet  was  built.  Finally  a  fleet  of  2  war- 
ships, 23  galleys,  4  fireshij^,  and  numerous  smaller  crafts  besieged  Azov  and 
on  July  18,  1696,  the  Turks  were  obliged  to  surrender.  Peter  established 
a  naval  station  at  Tazanrog,  at  the  head  of  the  Sea  of  Azov,  and  recommended 
to  the  Council  of  Boyars  the  urgent  need  of  a  powerful  fleet  in  this  region. 
Though  successive  rulers  encouraged  the  navy,  Russia  did  not  have  an 
important  fleet.  It  was  usually  led  and  manned  by  foreigners.  In  1770, 
during  the  reign  of  Catherine  II,  a  fleet  under  the  nominal  command  of  her 
favorite,  Orloff,  but  actually  commanded  by  two  former  officers  of  the  British 
Navy  (John  Elphinstone  and  Samuel  Greig),  gained  some  success  against  the 
Turks  in  the  Levant.  The  fleet  did  not  see  much  service  until  the  Crimean 
War  (1854),  and  then  won  little  fame. 

The  Russian  navy  labors  under  peculiar  difficulties  which  do  not  affect 
other  countries,  as  owing  to  the  geographical  situation  of  the  country  she 
must  maintain  4  distinct  fleets,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the  Black 
Sea  and  Baltic  fleets.  Under  Nicholas  II  every  effort  has  been  made  to  in- 
crease the  strength  and  efficiency  of  the  navy,  and  he  has  encouraged  Russian 


218 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


shipbuilding  to  the  extent  of  entrusting  to  Russian  firms  the  construction 
of  3  dreadnoughts  (1911)  for  the  Black  Sea  fleet.  The  building  program  has 
steadily  increased  since  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  and  on  April  1,  1911,  Vice- 
Admiral  Grigowitch  introduced  a  bill  providing  for  a  definite  standard  for 
the  Russian  fleets.  According  to  it,  by  1924  the  Baltic  fleet  is  to  have  16 
battleships,  8  armored  cruisers,  16  other  cruisers,  92  torpedo  boats  and  24 
submarines.  The  strength  of  the  Black  Sea  fleet  w^as  to  be  "half  as  strong 
again  as  any  possible  combination  of  fleets  in  those  waters"  and  it  was  de- 
cided to  ask  for  annual  appropriations  for  this  fleet,  as  it  was  not  possible 
at  that  time  to  know  the  exact  naval  strength  of  the  other  powers  in  that 
region.  On  June  19,  1912,  the  Duma  appropriated  $251,000,000  for  the  con- 
struction of  4  battleships  and  4  cruisers  for  the  Baltic ;  2  cruisers  for  the  Black 
Sea,  2  for  the  Pacific,  3  flotillas,  each  of  12  destroyers,  for  the  Baltic,  12  sub- 
marines for  the  Baltic,  and  6  for  Vladivostok ;  the  dockyards  and  arsenals 
were  to  be  enlarged  and  improved. 

The  number  of  men  for  the  navy  is  fixed  annually  by  law,  and  is  recruited 
by  conscription.  While  on  the  active  list,  the  men  are  not  allowed  to  marry. 
The  administration  is  under  the  control  of  the  minister  of  marine,  who  is 
at    the    head    of    the    twelve    departments    on    naval    aflfairs.      The    admiralty 


MKRCANTOC  CNSICN 


¥  ^ 


DREADNOUGHT  "SEVASTOPOL" 


220 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


FORECASTLE  OF  THE  ARMORED  CRUISER  "RURIK" 


council  which  consists  of  the  Minister  of  Marine,  the  assistant  minister  of 
marine  and  5  flag  officers,  deals  with  everything  connected  with  naval  legislation 
and  establishments. 

The  personnel  in  1910  was  about  53,500,  including  officers  and  men. 

The  following  table  gives  the  strength  of  the  Russian  Fleet  in  October, 
1913. 

Built     Building 

Battleships 9  7 

Coast  defence 1 

Battle  cruisers    4 

Armored  cruisers   6 

Protected  cruisers 

1st  class 6  6 

2nd  class    2 

3rd  class 2 

Torpedo  vessels   3 

Destroyers  96  9 

Torpedo  boats    26 

Submarines 29  7 

In  addition,  Russia  has  200  aeroplanes  and  12  dirigii^les  (10  building). 
The  naval  expenditure  for  1913-14  amounted  to  $121,247,270. 


RUSSIA. 


221 


SAILORS  AT  REST 


ARMORED  CRUISER     RURIK' 


222 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


GUNNERY  SCHOOL  TRAINING  SHIP  "IMPERATOR  ALEXANDER  IF 


BATTLKSHir  "AXDREI   PERVOSWANNI" 


RUSSIA. 


223 


BATTLESHIP   "PANTELIMON"   OF   THE   BLACK    SEA    FLEET 


ARMORED  CRUISER  "ADMIRAL  MAKAROFF" 


DESTROYER  "BOYEVOl" 


224 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


SUBMARINE  "ALLIGATOR' 


^ 


SUBMARINE  "PESKAR' 


DESTROYER  "BOURAKOFF' 


Belgi 


gium 


ALBERT  I 


QUEEN  ELIZABETH 


230 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


PRINCESS   MARIA-JOSfi 


PRINCE    LEOPOLD 


PRINCE  CHARLES  THEODORE 


BELGIUM. 


231 


LEOPOLD   II 


ALBERT  L 


King  Albert  of  Belgium  was  born  on  April  18,  1875.  second  son  of  Prince 
Philippe  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  Count  of  Flanders  and  of  Princess  Marie  of 
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,  and  is  the  third  of  the  Coburg  line  to  occupy  the 
throne  of  Belgium.  By  the  sudden  death  of  his  brother,  Prince  Baldwin,  in 
1891,  he  came  in  line  of  succession,  and  by  the  death  of  his  father  in  1905, 
became  heir  apparent,  as  King  Leopold's  only  son  had  died  while  yet  a  child. 
His  military  education  began  at  the  age  of  fifteen  at  the  Brussels  Military 
Academy,  and  he  entered  the  army  in  1892,  being  promoted  within  two  years 
to  the  rank  of  lieutenant  general.  He  continued  his  education,  devoting 
special  attention  to  mechanics,  economics  and  social  questions,  gaining  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  his  country's  industries,  by  personally  visiting  factories 
and  mines,  even  working  as  a  miner.  In  1898  he  visited  the  Congo  and  the 
United  States,  spending  some  time  in  the  Far  West.  On  October  2,  1900,  he 
married  the  Princess  Elizabeth  of  Bavaria.  Queen  Elizabeth  is  one  of  the  most 
learned  princesses  of  Europe,  following  the  scholarly  traditions  of  her  house, 
and  holds  a  degree  as  Doctor  of  Medicine  while  she  often  gives  her  services  to  the 
poor.  King  Albert  succeeded  his  uncle,  Leopold  II,  on  December  17,  1909,  and 
has  made  himself  most  popular  with  his  people. 

The  King  and  Queen  have  three  children :  Prince  Leopold  (b.  on  Novem- 
ber 3,  1901),  Prince  Charles  Theodore  (b.  on  October  10,  1903),  and  Princess 
Maria- Jose  (b.  on  August  4,  1906). 


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THE  HOUSE  OF  WETTIN. 


Coburg  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Wettin  family  in  the  fourteenth' 
century.  The  Wettins  derive  their  name  from  their  castle  in  Wettin  on  the 
Saale.  The  earliest  known  ancestor,  Dietrich,  Count  of  Hassegau  or  Hosgau, 
died  in  982,  and  his  sons,  Dedo  I  and  Frederick,  received  lands  from  the 
Wends.  Dedo's  son,  Dietrich  H,  inherited  these  possessions  and  married 
Mathilda,  daughter  of  the  Margrave  of  Meissen.  Their  son,  Dedo  H,  inher- 
ited the  Saxon  East  Mark  and  Meissen.  Thimo,  who  built  a  castle  at  Wettin,. 
was  the  first  to  be  called  by  this  name.  Conrad  (1156)  divided  his  lands  among 
his  five  sons  and  the  subsequent  history  of  the  family  is  identified  with  the  ruling 
families  of  Meissen,  Saxony,  and  the  four  Saxon  duchies. 

When  the  Wettins  became  Electors  of  Saxony,  Coburg  went  to  the  Ern- 
estine branch  and  passed  from  one  branch  to  another  until  it  was  assigned  to- 
John  Ernest  (d.  1729),  who  took  the  title  of  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, 
His  two  sons,Christian  Ernest  and  Francis  Josiah,  ruled  the  land  jointly,  but  at  the 
death  of  Christian  the  principle  of  primogeniture  was  adopted.  The  fourth 
son  of  Duke  Francis  (d.  1806)  married  the  Princess  Charlotte  of  England  and 
in  1830  he  accepted  the  oflfer  of  the  Belgian  crown  and  became  Leopold  I  of 
Belgium.     His  grandson,  Albert,  is  the  present  King  of  Belgium. 


Originally  Belgium  formed  part  of  the  Nether- 
lands or  Low  Countries.  Julius  Caesar  (57  B,  C.) 
in  his  "Commentaries"  describes  the  Gallo-Celtic  tribes 
dwelling  in  the  section  west  of  the  Rhine,  giving 
them  the  general  name  of  Belgae.  Under  Augustus 
(15  B.  C.)  the  conquered  territory  was  formed  into 
the  province  of  Gallica  Belgica,  and  the  people  became 
thoroughly  Romanized.  (For  early  history  see 
France  and  Germany).  By  the  Treaty  of  Verdun 
(843),  Charlemagne  gave  the  central  portion  of  his 
empire  (which  included  the  Netherlands)  to  his  son 
Lothair.  At  his  death  the  northern  part  of  the 
kingdom  went  to  his  son  Lothair  II,  and  was  called 
Lotharii,  later  Lotharingia  or  Lorraine.  The  remote- 
ness of  Lower  Lorraine  favored  the  growth 
of  independent  duchies,  chief  of  which  were  the  Duchy 
of  Brabant,  the  countries  of  Hainault,  Holland, 
Gelderland,  Limburg,  Luxemburg  and  Flanders, 
and  the  bishoprics  of  Utrecht  and  Liege.  During  the  9th  and  10th  centuries 
the  country  suffered  cruelly  from  the  attacks  of  the  Northmen,  but  by  the 
<:lose  of  the  11th  century  feudalism  was  well  established.  The  Crusades 
had  a  ready  appeal  for  the  Netherlanders,  from  whom  came  such  leaders  as 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  Duke  of  Lower  Lorraine,  leader  of  the  First  Crusade  and 
King  of  Jerusalem.  The  Third  Crusade  called  out  Floris  III  of  Holland,  Philip 
of  Flanders,  Otto  I  of  Gelderland,  and  Henry  I  of  Brabant,  while  the  Crusade  of 
1203  gave  the  crown  of  Constantinople  to  Baldwin  of  Flanders.  The  Crusades 
generally  had  a  most  favorable  influence  upon  the  Netherlands,  broadening  the 
people  and  increasing  their  wealth  and  commerce.  This  last  had  an  important 
influence  on  the  growth  of  the  chartered  towns,  the  most  important  of  which  were 
Bruges,  Ghent  and  Ypres. 

In  the  13th  century,  these  were  large  industrial  centers,  employed 
chiefly  in  the  weaving  of  cloth  and  woolen  goods.  The  cities  by  means  of 
the  organization  of  trade  guilds  were  soon  powerful  enough  to  oppose  the 
nobles,  and  under  Jacques  van  Artevelde  (1285-1345)  of  Ghent  reached  their 
greatest  height  of  power,  but  after  his  death  they  declined,  and  the  Nether- 
lands, by  purchase,  marriage,  or  conquest,  passed  gradually  into  the  control 
of  the  House  of  Burgundy,  and  later,  by  the  marriage  of  Mary  of  Burgundy 
to  Maximilian  of  Austria,  to  the  Hapsburgs.     The  Emperor  Charles  V  gave 


234 THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 

the  Netherlands  to  his  son,  Philip  II  of  Spain  (October  25,  1555).  For  the 
next  twenty-five  years,  Philip,  through  his  generals  "the  Duke  of  Alva  and 
later  Don  John  of  Austria,  v^aged  a  series  of  wars  against  William  of  Orange, 
who  stood  for  the  Protestant  party.  By  this  time,  however,  the  acute  rivalry 
between  the  two  nationalities,  forced  a  break  between  the  Belgians  and  the 
Dutch.  By  the  League  of  Arras  (January  5,  1579),  Hainault,  Artois  and 
Douai  formed  themselves  into  a  league  for  the  defense  of  the  Catholic  re- 
ligion; the  union  of  Utrecht  (Holland,  Zeeland,  Utrecht,  Gelderland  and  Zut- 
phen)  followed  on  the  29th  of  the  month  and  from  tnis  date  tne  separate 
histories  of  Belgium  and  Holland,  though  Belgium  remained  under  SpanisU 
influence  and  was  known  as  the  Spanish  Netherlands. 

During  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  Belgium  was  the  scene  of  the 
hardest  fighting.  By  the  peace  of  Utrecht  (1714)  the  country  passed  to  the 
Emperor  Charles  VI  and  was  known  as  the  Austrian  Netherlands.  At  the  end 
of  the  18th  century  discontent  at  Austrian  rule  had  reached  such  proportions 
that  on  December  2,  1789,  Brussels  rebelled  and  drove  out  the  Austrians.  Brabant 
then  declared  her  independence  and  on  January  2,  17S0  the  Belgian  United 
States  came  into  effect.  Belgium  did  not  long  enjoy  her  new  position  for  she 
was  conquered  by  the  French  from  1790  to  1794.  In  1815  she  was 
united  to  Holland  under  the  Prince  of  Orange,  but  the  union  met  with 
great  opposition  among  the  Belgians,  by  race,  language  and  religion 
estranged  from  the  Dutch.  They  revolted  in  1830  and  at  the  request  of  the 
King  of  the  Netherlands,  representatives  of  the  five  great  powers  met  in 
London  to  arrange  the  differences  between  Belgium  and  Holland.  The 
congress  agreed  on  the  independence  of  Belgium  as  an  hereditary  constitu- 
tional monarchy.  On  December  20,  1830  the  dissolution  of  the  Netherlands 
was  declared,  a  constitution  modelled  on  the  British  was  drawn  up,  and  Prince 
Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg  (widower  of  Princess  Charlotte  of  England)  was 
elected  King.  The  Cirand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg  and  Maestricht  was  divided 
between  Holland  and  Belgium,  the  Scheldt  was  declared  open  to  both  coun- 
tries, the  national  debt  was  divided  and  the  neutrality  of  Belgium  was 
guaranteed.  Under  Leopold  the  country  prospered.  His  son,  Leopold  II, 
made  Flemish  the  official  language  of  the  Flemish  provinces  (French  for 
the  others),  and  settled  the  educational  question.  Proportional  represent- 
ation was  adopted  and  the  Congo  was  annexed  (1908).  His  nephew,  Albert, 
succeeded  on  December  17,  1909. 

Belgium  has  an  area  of  11,373  sq.  mi.,  and  a  population  of  7,423,784. 
There  are  2,822,005  people  who  speak  only  French,  and  2,574,805,  who  speak 
onlv  Flemish.  The  north  is  chiefly  agricultural,  and  the  south  chiefly  indus- 
trial. The  country  is  rich  in  coal  and  iron,  producing  23,054,000  metric  tons 
of  coal  in  1911.  The  success  of  the  industries  generally  is  due  in  great  part  to  the 
high  standard  of  technical  education  prevailing.  The  exports  for  1913-14 
amounted  to  $725,225,000  and  the  imports  to  $916,725,000 

Belgian  Congo  has  an  area  of  909,654  sq.  mi.,  and  a  population  (chiefly 
of  Bantu  origin)  of  about  15,000,000. 

According  to  the  constitution  of  1831,  Belgium  is  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy, with  the  executive  power  vested  in  the  King  and  his  ministers,  and  the 
legislative  vested  jointly  in  the  King,  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 
The  Senate  consists  of  members  elected  for  8  years  (total  number  120,  of 
whom  27  are  elected  by  the  provincial  councils)  partly  directly  and  partly  in- 
directly. The  Representatives  are  all  elected  directly  by  the  electoral  body. 
Manhood  suffrage  prevails,  based  upon  the  plural  vote  and  proportional 
representation  of  minorities. 


THE  ARMY. 


The  Belgium  army  may  be  said  to  have  arisen  during  the  16th  century, 
when  the  long  struggle  against  Spain  forced  the  United  Provinces  to  maintain 
an  army.  During  the  wars  against  Louis  XIV  and  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  the,  Dutch  and  Belgians  had  a  force  of  100,000  men,  which  in- 
cluded, however,  many  English  and  Scottish  regiments.  At  Malplaquet  (1709) 
the  flower  of  the  army  perished  and  by  1790  it  numbered  only  36,000  men. 
Conquered  by  the  French  during  1790-95,  the  army  was  thoroughly  re-organ- 
ized on  French  lines  and  served  the  Empire  well. 

Since  1830  Belgium  has  maintained  an  excellent  army.  On  December 
14,  1900  and-  again  on  June  19,  1913  laws  were  passed  for  its  organization. 
The  army  is  recruited  partly  by  voluntary  enlistment  and  partly  by  conscrip- 
tion (49  per  cent,  of  the  annual  contingent).  The  voluntary  recruits  serve 
from  15  to  24  months  (according  to  the  arm)  with  the  colors,  and  for  the 
remainder  of  the  8  years  in  the  first  line  army ;  5  years  more  are  spent  in  the 
2nd  line  of  reserves,  with  periodical  training.  The  compulsory  recruit 
serves  15  months  in  the  infantry,  garrison  artillery  and  engineers,  1  year  9 
months  in  the  field  artillery  and  2  years  in  the  cavalry.  The  other  service 
is  the  same.  The  annual  levy  is  small  and  substitution  is  permitted.  All 
physically  fit  and  not  otherwise  needed,  are  enrolled  in  the  Garde  Civique, 
which  has  the  duty  of  maintaining  public  order,  but  can  furnish  in  time  of 
war  about  45,000  meh  (with  a  reserve  of  100,000)  for  garrison  duty  and  use 
along  the  lines  of  communication.  The  Gendarmerie,  a  semi-military  corps, 
half  of  it  mounted,  furnishes  a  squadron  for  each  field  division  as  divisional 
cavalry. 


238 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


INFANTRY  READY  FOR  ACTION 


The  peace  establis.iment  in  1913  was  as  follows: 

Officers  Men 

General  Staff 38 

Staff 46 

Administration 271                   437 

Medical  Corps 230 

Veterinary 45 

Provincial  Staff • 34 

Infantry 1,745             25,070 

Cavalry 304                5,671 

Artillery 636               9,041 

Train 29                  291 

Engineers 164                1,551 

Civilians 200 

Various 1,800 

Total   3,542  44,061 

According  to  the  law  of  1913,  the  peace  establishment  was  to  be  main- 
tained at  a  strength  of  57,886.  In  time  of  war,  with  the  aid  of  all  classes  of 
the  reserves,  this  force  could  be  raised  to  340,000.  Belgium  also  has  an  aero- 
nautical company,  consisting  of  an  aeronautical  school  and  several  sections 
of  4  aeroplanes  each.  In  1914  she  had  1  dirigible  (1  building)  and  40  aero- 
planes. 

The  army  expenditure  voted  in  1914  amounted  to  $20,219,250. 


BELGIUM 


239 


"MARCHING" 


"RESTING" 


240 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


INFANTRY  CROSSING  A  RIVER 


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THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


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GRAND   DUCHESS   MARIE 


GRAND  DUCHESS 
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THE  LATE  GRAND  DUKE 
WILLIAM 


GRAND  DUCHESS  MARIE 


The  Grand  Duchess  Marie  Adelaide  was  born  on  June  14,  1894,  the  oldest 
daughter  of  the  Grand  Duke  William  and  of  the  Grand  Duchess  Marie  Anne, 
who  is  a  sister  of  Dom  Miguel  of  Braganza.  On  the  death  of  her  father  on 
February  25,  1912,  she  succeeded  to  the  throne,  but  as  she  did  not  attain  her 
majority  until  June  of  that  year,  her  mother  acted  as  regent.  In  June  she  was 
installed  as  sovereign  of  Luxemburg  and  at  the  same  time  came  into  possession 
of  the  large  fortune  of  the  Nassau  family. 

The  Grand  Duchess  has  five  sisters:  the  Princesses  Charlotte  Adelgonde 
(b.  Jan.  28,  1896),  Hilda  Sophie  (b.  Feb.  15,  1897),  Antoinette  Roberte  (b. 
Oct.  7,  1899),  Elizabeth  Marie  (b.  March  7,  1901),  and  Sophie  Caroline  (b. 
Feb.  14,  1902). 


M2  m  HisTGRv  :^  Ms 

Wedged  in  between  Belgium,  Germany  and  France,  lies  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Luxemburg.  About  50  miles  long  and  30  miles  wide,  this  tiny  triangular 
country  has  been  the  theatre  for  the  whole  drama  of  Western  European  history. 
Many  countries  have  fought  for  it ;  many  rulers  cast  envious  eyes  upon  it ;  many 
peoples  settled  on  its  lands, — but  all  through  its  crowded  career  the  Luxem- 
burgians  have  preserved  their  own  physical,  racial  and  ethical  character. 
Luxemburg  is  a  land  of  varied  beauty.  In  the  north  (Oesling)  stretch  the 
wooded  heights  of  the  Ardennes,  a  wild  and  picturesque  region  that  can  vie  with 
any  in  Europe  for  romantic  interest  and  eerie  glamor.  The  climate  has  a  sharp- 
ness and  severity  unknown  in  the  south,  and  yet  every  available  acre  is  under 
the  richest  and  most  careful  cultivation.  The  south  (Gutland)  melts  into  the 
plains  of  Lorraine. 

Under  Lothair  II  the  Duchy  was  included  in  Lotharingia  or  Lorraine,  and  for 
500  years  belonged  to  its  natural  ally  Germany  (see  Belgium  and  Germany). 
There  was  a  certain  Wiric  (Weirich),  Count  of  Ardenne,  who  claimed  descent 
from  Charlemagne.  Upon  his  son  Henry,  Archbishop  Bruno  of  Cologne 
conferred  the  administration  of  High  Lorraine,  and  Henry's  brother  Siegfried 
became  the  founder  of  the  House  of  Luxemburg,  and  the  father  of  a  race  of 
emperors,  kings,  archbishops,  counts,  knights,  cathedral  builders,  crusaders  and 
saints.     Siegfried  proved  a  wise  ruler  and  founded  the  present  city  of  Luxemburg. 

In  723  Charles  Martel  fell  ill  at  Trier.  The  Monks  laid  him  on  St.  Maximin's 
tomb,  and  in  gratitude  for  his  recovery,  Charles  made  over  to  the  convent  four 
districts  which  he  possessed  in  Austrasia.  One  of  these  was  called  Urismaris 
Ecclesia  or  Weimerskirch,  and  near  it  stood  an  old  ruined  fort,  built,  according 
to  tradition,  by  the  Emperor  Gallienus  in  the  3rd  century.  It  was  called  Lucilen- 
burhut  or  Laetilingonoburgum  (a  little  outpost).  Siegfried  made  it  into  a 
fortified  castle,  and  the  town  gradually  grew  up  around  it,  while  the  changing 
tongue  of  the  people  softened  its  name  from  Lutzelbourg  to  Luxemburg. 

By  the  Congress  of  Vienna  (1815),  the  Duchy  went  to  William  I  of  Holland, 
Prince  of  Orange-Nassau- Vianden,  and  descended  from  the  old  House  of  Luxem- 
burg, and  the  Duchy  was  incorporated  into  the  Germanic  confederation.  The 
Treaty  of  London  (1839)  finally  settled  the  limits  of  the  Duchy;  the  Walloon 
section  went  to  Belgium  to  form  the  Belgian  province  of  Luxemburg,  and  the 
Duchy  was  reduced  to  about  one-quarter  of  its  size  under  its  first  Duke,  Wen- 
ceslaus  I.  It  was  made  a  hereditary  kingdom  under  the  males  of  the  Nassau 
family  and  was  ruled  by  the  Kings  of  Holland.  William  II  drafted  the  constitu- 
tion, and  placed  Luxemburg  under  the  German  Zollverein.  ,  Upon  the  death  of 
William  III  in  1890,  Prince  Adolf  William  of  the  elder  branch  of  the  family 
succeeded.  He  died  in  1905  and  his  son  became  Grand  Duke,  but  owing  to  his 
illness,  his  wife,  the  Grand  Duchess  Marie  Anne,  acted  as  regent.  On  April  16, 
1907,  a  family  arrangement  was  concluded  whereby  the  succession  was  to  go  to 
his  eldest  daughter,  as  he  had  no  sons,  and  on  July  10,  1907,  a  law  was  passed 
in  the  Duchy  confirming  this  decision.  On  the  death  of  her  father  in  1505,  the 
Grand  Duchess  Marie  became  ruler  of  Luxemburg. 

In  1867,  by  an  agreement  of  the  Great  Powers,  Luxemburg  was  made  a 
neutral  State  and  the  fortifications  of  the  capital  were  demolished.  There  is  no 
army,  with  the  exception  of  a  guard  of  about  150,  and  a  gendarmerie  of  150  more. 

The  Duchy  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  with  a  chamber  of  deputies  (53 
members,  elected  directly  by  the  cantons  for  6  years,  half  renewed  every  3  years). 
It  is  in  session  but  four  months  in  the  year.  The  Duchy  has  an  area  of  998  sq. 
mi.  and  a  population  of  259,891  (1910). 


Montenegro 


NICHOLAS   I 


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PRINCE  DANILO  Ax\D  STAFF 


ORDER  OF   DANILO   I 


NICHOLAS  I. 


Nicholas  1  was  born  on  October  7,  1841,  and  received 
his  education  at  Trieste  and  Paris,  where  the  news  of 
the  assassination  of  his  uncle  Danilo  II  (August,  1860) 
reached  him.  Upon  his  accession  he  decided  to  carry  out 
the  reforms  begun  by  Danilo,  and  has  proved  a  very 
Hberal  monarch.  He  established  schools,  legal  tribunals, 
and  admmistrative  bureaus,  and  in  1905  granted  a  liberal 
constitution  to  the  people.  Under  his  wise  and  careful 
rule  the  country  has  made  remarkable  progress,  and  the 
neople  have  prospered.  He  has  especially  encouraged 
'iterature  and  is  a  writer  and  poet  of  considerable 
ability.  "The  Queen  of  the  Balkans"  and  "Prince 
Arnavit"  have  been  translated  into  several  languages. 

On  November  8,  1860,  he  married  the  Princess 
Milena,  daughter  of  Peter  Vukotic,  Senator  and  Vice- 
President  of  the  Council  of  State.  There  are  nine 
"hilc'ren:  Princess  Militza  (b.  July  26,  1866;  married 
in  1888  the  Grand  Duke  Peter  Nikolaievitch  of  Russia), 
Princess  Stana  (b.  Jan.  4,  1868;  married  in 
1889  the  Duke  of  Leuchtenberg,  and  in  1907  the  Grand 
Duke  Niolas  Nikolaievitch),  Prince  Danilo  Alexander, 
heir  apparent  (b.  June  29,  1871 ;  married  in 
1899  the  Princess  Jutta  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,)  Princess 
Helena  (b.  Jan.  8,  1873;  married  in  1896  King  Victor 
Fmanuel  of  Italy),  Princess  Anna  (b.  Aug.  18,  1874;  mar- 
ried in  1897  Prince  Francis  Joseph  of  Battenberg),  Prince  Mirko  (b.  April  17, 
1879;  married  in  1902  Natalie  Constantinovich),  Princess  Xenia  (b.  Apr.  22, 
1881),  Princess  Vera  (b.  Feb.  22,  1887),  and  Prince  Peter  (b.  Oct.  10,  1889). 


HISTORY 


Montenegro  formed  part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Illyria,  and  belonged 
^rst  to  Rome  and  then  to  Constantinople,  acknowledging  the  ecclesiastical 
authority  of  the  latter.  During  the  6th  and  7th  centuries  it  passed  into  the 
control  of  the  Serbs,  who  still  form  the  majority  of  the  population.  The  Serb 
principality  of  the  Zeta  (Zenta)  included  Montenegro,  which  shared  the  fortunes 
of  Servia  until  the  battle  of  Kossovo  (see  Servia).  The  Montenegrins  withdrew 
to  the  shelter  of  their  mountain  fastnesses  from  which  they  waged  a  continual 
warfare  with  the  Turks.  Ivan  the  Black  (c.  1484)  established  his  capital  at 
Cettinje,  where  he  founded  a  monastery  and  bishopric.  From  then  until  1696, 
the  people  were  ruled  by  the  Bishops  of  Cettinje,  who  were  elected  by  assemblies 
of  the  chiefs  and  people  and  consecrated  by  the  Patriarch  of  Ipek.  They  were 
assisted  in  matters  of  defense  by  a  civil  governor.  In  1696  the  people  decided 
to  revive  the  hereditary  principle  and  called  in  Danilo  Petrovitch  of  Niegush 
(founder  of  the  present  reigning  family).  The  succession  was  henceforth  from 
uncle  to  nephew,  owing  to  the  rule  of  celibacy  of  the  monastic  order.  Under 
Danilo  I  occurred  the  massacre  of  the  Turks  (Montenegrin  Vespers  of  1702), 
the  defeat  of  the  Turks  at  Tzarevlatz  (1712),  the  capture  of  Cettinje  by  the  Turks 
(1714),  and  the  opening  of  relations  with  Russia  by  Danilo's  visit  to  Peter  the 
Great.  Peter  I  (1782-1830)  joined  the  Austrian  and  Russian  forces  against 
Turkey,  defeating  her  in  the  battle  of  Krussa  (1796),  annexed  the  Brda  region, 
obtained  formal  recognition  of  the  independence  of  Montenegro  from  the  Sultan 
in  1799,  re-organized  the  internal  administration,  and  promulgated  the  first  code 


MONTENEGRO 


251 


VETERANS 

of  laws.  Peter  II  (1830-51)  instituted  a  senate  (1831),  abolished  the  office  of 
civil  governor,  revived  the  national  printing  press  and  did  much  for  the  education 
of  his  people.  His  nephew,  Danilo  II,  refused  the  ecclesiastical  dignity,  assumed 
the  title  of  gospoda  (prince),  thus  settling  the  succession  on  the  direct  male 
heir,  defeated  the  Turks  near  Ostroy  (1853),  and  promulgated  a  new  code  giving 
civil  and  religious  liberty  to  the  people.  He  was  assassinated  on  August  11, 
1860,  and  his  nephew,  Nicholas,  succeeded.  Prince  Nicholas  entered  upon  a 
disastrous  war  with  the  Turks,  after  which  the  country  suffered  greatly  from 
pestilence  and  famine.  Montenegro  joined  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1877, 
and  obtained  Nikshitch,  Antivari  and  Dulcigno,  recovering  the  seaboard  which 
had  been  lost  since  the  Middle  Ages.  Nicholas  reformed  the  army,  initiated 
schemes  of  education  and  granted  a  constitution  (1905).  In  1906  the  first 
Parliament  met  and  on  August  28,  1910,  Prince  Nicholas  assumed  the  title  of 
King.  From  1880,  till  the  Balkan  troubles  of  1912,  the  country  had  remained 
at  peace,  developing  its  internal  resources,  but  in  1912,  Montenegro  joined  the 
Balkan  League  and  fought  valiantly  against  the  Turks.  By  the  treaty  of 
Bucharest  (July  25,  1913)  she  obtained  168  sq.  mi.  of  Scutari,  and  1,961  sq.  mi. 


252 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


of  Kossovo.     In  the  present  European  war  she  allied  herself  with  Servia. 

Montenegro  has  a  total  area  of  5,603  sq.  mi.  and  a  population  of  516,000 
(including  230,000  in  the  new  territories).  The  people  are  chiefly  pastoral  and 
agricultural,  and  the  great  majority  are  Serbo-Croats. 

The  government  is  vested  in  the  King,  Council  of  State,  which  consists  of 
the  Crown  Prince,  Metropolitan  Bishop,  all  ministers,  and  councillors  appointed 
by  the  King,  and  Sknpschtina  (members  elected  for  4  years). 


THE  ARMY. 

Every  Montenegrin  is  a  soldier,  his  weapon  is  never  left  aside  and  military 
distinction  is  his  high  ambition.  The  long  and  desperate  struggle  for  national 
existence  has  developed  in  him  an  unrivalled  aptitude  for  guerilla  warfare,  and 
until  the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  the  army  consisted  only  of  undisciplined  bands 
of  tribesmen,  under  local  chiefs.  The  supreme  command,  however,  remained 
with  the  prince.  Peter  H  started  a  permanent  army,  with  the  formation  of  the 
perianiki,  a  bodyguard  of  picked  men;  Danilo  H  ordered  the  enrollment  (1853) 
of  all  persons  capable  of  bearing  arms  and  created  the  offices  of  general,  colonel 
and  captain.  The  organization,  which  was  based  somewhat  on  the  tribal  system, 
was  revised  by  Servian  officers,  who  were  called  in  (1870)  to  assist  in  training  the 
soldiers.  Since  that  year,  Russia  has  furnished  the  chief  supply  of  arms.  Prince 
Nicholas  re-organized  the  army  thoroughly  in  accordance  with  modern  methods. 

According  to  the  law  of  1910,  military  service  is  compulsory  from  the  age  of 
18  to  62.  The  soldier  serves  2  years  with  the  colors  (with  6  months'  training 
each  year,  though  in  practice  it  amounts  to  3  months  in  the  artillery  and  2  in  the 
other  branches,  each  year)  ;  then  the  soldier  belongs  for  33  years  to  the  active 
army,  and  for  8  years  to  the  reserve.  The  active  army  is  divided  into  two 
classes :  those  fit  for  active  service  and  those  fit  for  less  taxing  duties,  such  as 
transport,  supply  or  medical.  The  active  army  may  be  called  up  for  not  more 
than  15  days'  service  in  the  year.  Those  unable  to  perform  military  service  by 
reason  of  physical  unfitness,  pay  a  special  military  tax,  which  varies  according  to 
their  means.     There  is  no  cavalry. 

The  war  strength  of  the  army  is  about  50,000  men,  and  in  1913  Montenegro 
spent  $900,000  for  military  purposes,  receiving  in  addition  a  subsidy  of  about 
$350,000  from  Russia. 


ervia 


PETER   I 


CROWN  PRINCE  ALEXANDER 


PETER  I. 

King  Peter  Karageorgevich  I,  was  born  on  June  29  (O.  S.),  1844.  He  is 
the  grandson  of  George  Czerny,  surnamed  Karageorge  (Black  George),  who  was 
elected  the  head  of  the  nation's  forces  in  the  Servian  insurrection  against  the 
Turks  in  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century.  Those  who  favored  this  family 
formed  a  conspiracy  against  Alexander  I,  who  represented  the  Obrenovich  line, 
and  on  June  11,  1903,  Alexander  I  and  Queen  Draga  were  assassinated.  The 
throne  was  offered  to  Peter  who  accepted  it.  King  Peter  was  very  popular  as 
a  young  man,  and  earned  the  title  of  the  "Red  Prince"  on  account  of  his  socialistic 
views.  Though  he  came  to  the  throne  under  a  shadow,  his  reign  has  been 
apparently  acceptable  to  the  majority.  He  married  in  1883,  a  daughter  of 
the  Prince  of  Montenegro,  Princess  Zorka,  who  died  in  1890.  He  has  two  sons. 
Prince  George  (b.  in  1887)  and  Prince  Alexander  (b.  in  1888),  and  a  daughter, 
Princess  Helene  (b.  in  1884).  In  1909,  Prince  George  voluntarily  renounced 
his  rights  to  the  succession  and  his  brother.  Prince  Alexander,  was  recognized 
as  heir  to  the  throne. 


1.  ORDER  OF  ST.  SAVA 

2.  ORDER  OF  THE  WHITE  EAGLE 

3.  ORDER  OF  TAKOVO 


SERVIA 


259 


M.  PASHITCH 
Prime  Minister 


GENERAL 
PUTNICK 


CHIEF    OF 
STAFF 


M.  NIKIHFOROFF 
Minister  of  War 


^^^^ 


HISTORY. 

According  to  the  earliest  records,  the  Serbs  are  a  Slavonic  people,  who  were 
found  dwelling  along  the  Wissla  and  Dneister  Rivers  in  Galicia  before  the  sixth 
century.  Early  in  this  century  they  migrated  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  then  advanced 
westward  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  crossing  the  river  and  occupying 
the  northwestern  part  of  the  Balkan  peninsula.  They  came  into  conflict  with 
the  Greeks,  but  the  Emperor  Heraclius  finally  made  peace  with  them  and  con- 
firmed them  in  their  new  possessions  as  long  as  they  recognized  his  suzerainty. 
But  the  Serbs  did  not  at  once  build  up  a  cohesive  state,  owing  to  reasons  partly 
racial  and  partly  political.  They  had  a  system  of  Zhupaniyas  (whereby  each 
clan  or  a  group  of  related  clans  occupied  a  certain  section  of  the  country),  under 
the  leadership  of  a  chief  or  Zhupan.  These  Zhupaniyas  were  all  independent  of 
one  another,  and  there  was  a  constant  struggle  for  supremacy  among  the  more 
powerful  ones.  The  difficulties  of  union  were  further  increased  by  the  internal 
dissensions  of  each  Zhupaniya,  caused  by  the  old  Slavonic  idea  of  inheritance, 
whereby  the  power  went  to  the  oldest  member  of  the  family,  rather  than  from 
father  to  son.  Further  complications  arose  from  the  rivalry  between  the  Greek 
Empire  on  one  side  and  Hungary  and  Venice  on  the  other,  to  possess  a  dominating 
influence  in  the  Servian  lands.  With  the  rise  of  the  Bulgarian  nation  in  the  7th 
century,  the  Serbs  were  forced  to  divide  their  allegiance,  and  from  the  8th  to  the 
12th  centuries,  acknowledged  the  Bulgarian  (Greek)  or  Venetian  and  Hungarian 
power. 

Attempts  at  union,  however,  were  made  many  times,  but  never  succeeded  for 
long.  Zhupan  Visheslav,  Vlastivir  (under  whom  the  Serbs  embraced  Christianity 
between  871-875),  and  St.  Vladimir  were  the  most  successful  leaders,  but  it  was 
left  to  Stephen  Nemanya,  Zhupan  of  Rashka  (1169),  to  unite  all  the  Serbs  under 
one  rule,  and  hence  he  may  be  considered  the  real  founder  of  the  Servian  kingdom, 
over  which  his  descendants  ruled  for  two  hundred  years.  During  this  period, 
Servia  kept  pace  with  the  general  development  of  European  civilization,  and  in 
manners,  customs  and  general  education  compared  favorably  with  the  rest  of 
Europe.  From  this  period  date  her  great  epics  and  the  people  to  this  day,  in 
their  folk  songs,  sing  of  the  heroic  deeds  of  that  time.  In  1349  Stephen  Dushan 
convoked  at  Uskub  the  Sahor  (Parliament)  to  begin  the  codification  of  the  laws 
and  legal  customs,  which  was  published  under  the  title  of  Zakonik  Tsara 
Dushana.  The  Turks  began  their  incursions  about  this  time,  and  in  1371  the 
Serbs  suffered  from  them  a  severe  check,  which  became  an  utter  defeat  at  the 
battle  of  Kossovo  in  1389.  The  Serbs  attempted  to  rally  their  forces,  and  under 
Hunyadi  Janos  defeated  the  Turks  at  Kunovista,  forcing  the  Sultan  to  make 
peace.  He  restored  to  the  Serbs  the  lands  which  had  been  confiscated,  and 
acknowledged  Prince  George  as  their  ruler.  The  Serbs  made  another  appeal  to 
Europe,  but  she  refused  any  further  aid  and  the  Serbs  were  again  obliged  to 
yield  to  the  Turks,  who  in  1459  laid  waste  the  country  and  made  it  a  pashalik 
under  the  direct  control  of  the  Porte. 


SERVIA 


261 


For  the  next  300  years  Servia  declined,  suffering  all  the  miseries  of  Turkish 
oppression,  unable  to  develop  a  national  life  or  the  natural  resources  of  the  coun- 
try. Subject  to  constant  inroads  and  massacres,  the  people  were  barely  able  to 
preserve  their  existence.  The  Serbs  formed  willing  volunteers  to  the  Austrian 
armies  in  the  18th  century  during  their  campaigns  against  the  Turks,  and  Turkish 
rule  was  so  far  weakened  by  1804  that  the  Serbs  were  able  to  make  an  effective 
revolt.  They  elected  George  Petrovich  (Karageorge)  in  national  assembly 
commander-in-chief  of  the  national  forces  and  the  leader  of  the  nation.  The 
Turks  were  swept  out  in  1807,  and  the  Sultan  offered  to  grant  the  Serbs  self- 
government  and  to  acknowledge  George  as  Prince.  The  Serbs,  however,  relying 
on  Russian  aid,  refused,  preferring  to  join  the  Russians  against  Turkey ;  but  when 
conditions  at  home  forced  Russia  to  sign  hastily  the  treaty  of  Bucharest,  Servian 
interests  were  forgotten  and  the  country  was  left  again  to  the  Turks,  who  occupied 
the  country  in  force.  Milosh  was  appointed  ruler  and  succeeded  in  organizing  the 
Serbs  once  more  against  the  Turks,  with  the  result  that  by  the  treaty  of  Adrianople 
(1829),  full  autonomy  was  granted  the  Serbs,  though  Turkish  garrisons  were 
permitted  to  remain  in  Servian  fortresses.  Milosh  was  declared  hereditary 
prince,  and  worked  zealously  for  the  country's  welfare  under  great  difficulties, 
but  his  autocratic  methods  displeased  the  people  and  he  clashed  with  Russia. 
Hence  he  was  forced  to  abdicate  in  1839.  His  younger  son,  Michael,  ascended 
the  throne,  but  was  also  forced  to  abdicate  in  1842,  when  Alexander  Kara- 
georgevich  (younger  son  of  Karageorge)  became  ruler.  Though  the  country 
prospered,  his  Austrian  tendencies  and  refusal  to  summon  the  national  assembly 
dissatisfied  the  people.  Milosh  was  summoned  back  to  power,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Michael  in  1860.  Michael  proved  a  wise  and  liberal  ruler,  organized 
the  national  army,  and  formed  alliances  with  Greece,  Montenegro,  Bosnia- 
Herzegovina,  Bulgaria  and  Albania,  in  preparation  for  an  uprising  against  the 
Turks.  In  1867  he  formally  demanded  that  the  Porte  should  deliver  up  all  the 
fortresses  held  in  Servia,  and  the  Sultan,  advised  by  Europe,  yielded.  His 
success  aroused  the  jealousy  of  the  supporters  of  the  Karageorgevich  dynasty 
and  Michael  was  assassinated  on  June  10,  1868.  The  national  assembly  pro- 
claimed Milan  (son  of  Michael's  cousin)  Prince  of  Servia. 


262 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


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Milan  at  first  favored  Russian  interests,  but  receiving  little  from  the  war 
of  1877  (between  Turkey  and  Russia)  tried  to  conciliate  Austria.  The  Congress 
of  Berlin  (1878)  guaranteed  the  complete  independence  of  the  country  but  gave 
little  else,  and  from  then  until  1889,  there  was  a  constant  struggle  between  Milan 
and  the  progressives  on  one  side  and  the  radicals  and  Russian  influence  on  the 
other.  Milan  was  hampered  in  his  reforms  by  financial  difficulties  and  the  Servo- 
Bulgarian  war,  but  granted  a  very  liberal  constitution  in  January,  1889,  and  then 
resigned  in  favor  of  his  young  son,  Alexander,  leaving  the  country  to  a  regency. 
Under  Alexander,  a  conservative  party  arose,  in  reaction  against  the  constant 
quarrels  between  the  Liberals  and  Radicals,  and  the  country  turned  its  attention 
to  agriculture  and  commerce,  while  the  foreign  policy  began  to  lean  towards 
Austria.  Alexander's  unfortunate  marriage  with  Queen  Draga,  brought  him 
great  unpopularity,  which  was  increased  by  his  reactionary  constitution  of  1901. 
The  adherents  of  the  Karageorgevich  family  took  advantage  of  the  discontent 
and  Alexander  and  Draga  were  assassinated  on  June  11,  1903.  Peter  Kara- 
georgevich (grandson  of  Karageorge)  was  declared  King.  Europe  accepted  Peter 
very  reluctantly,  but  by  1906  he  was  everywhere  recognized.  The  idea  of  a 
'Great  Servia"  now  began  to  take  possession  of  the  people ;  they  agitated  for 
the  reunion  of  Bosnia-Herzegovina,  Montenegro  and  Old  Servia  into  a  Servian 
Empire,  but  were  forced  to  accede  to  the  annexation  of  Bosnia-Herzegovina  in 
1908  by  Austria.  In  1912,  however,  Servia  felt  strong  enough  to  assert  herself, 
and  joined  the  Balkan  League,  entering  upon  the  first  Balkan  War.  In  this  war 
Servia  fought  (in  common  with  the  other  Balkan  States),  with  a  brilliance  and 
ability  that  surprised  Europe,  and  at  Monastir  and  Durazzo  won  splendid 
victories.  Turkey  was  defeated,  and  negotiations  for  peace  were  under  way, 
when  differences  arose  between  Bulgaria  and  Servia,  which  led  to  the  second 
Balkan  War.  The  Balkans  finally  secured  peace  by  the  Treaty  of  Bucharest 
(July  25,  1913),  whereby  Servia  gained  1,795  sq.  mi.  of  Salonika,  3,473  sq.  mi. 
of  Monastir  and  9,973  sq.  mi.  of  Kossovo. 

Servia  has  an  area  of  33,891  sq.  mi.  and  a  population  of  4,547,992  (2,911,701 
in  Old  Servia,  1,636,291  in  New  Servia).  The  chief  industry  is  agriculture, 
nearly  every  peasant  cultivating  his  own  freehold. 

According  to  the  constitution  of  1889,  the  executive  power  is  vested  in  the 
King  and  his  ministers,  and  the  legislative  in  the  King  in  conjunction  with  the 


SERVIA. 


263 


national  assembly  and  council  of  State.  The  national  assembly  is  elected  by  the 
people ;  the  council  of  State  consists  of  8  members  elected  by  the  assembly  and 
8  appointed  by  the  King. 


OFFICERS 


THE  ARMY. 


Servia  may  be  said  to  have  been  always  in  arms,  but  the  constant  guerilla 
struggle  with  the  Turks  allowed  neither  time  nor  means  for  a  regularly  organized 
army  on  European  lines.  In  the  19th  century,  however,  Servia  paid  considerable 
attention  to  the  organization  of  her  army.  Prince  Michael  (1860)  reformed  the 
administration,  but  the  army  had  no  reputation  in  Europe.  Early  in  this  century, 
Servia  began  seriously  to  drill  and  perfect  her  armed  force,  which  owing  to  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  people,  and  the  inspiration  of  a  popular  cause,  won  a  high 
reputation  during  the  Balkan  War  of  1912-13,  and  at  the  opening  of  hostilities, 
Servia  was  able  to  put  into  the  field  about  190,000  men.  Though  Bulgaria  had 
promised  to  send  100,000  to  assist  the  Serbs  in  the  Macedonian  campaign,  she 
changed  her  plans  at  the  last  minute,  and  Servia  had  to  advance  without  this 
assistance.  However,  in  conjunction  with  Montenegro,  the  Serbs  won  the  battle 
of  Kumanova,  and  obtained  possession  of  Novibazar;  but  the  defection  of  Bulgaria 
was  not  forgotten,  and  in  the  Second  Balkan  War,  she  was  completely  defeated 
(Semitli,  July  25-27,  1913).  Though  the  numerical  strength  of  their  army  was 
reduced  by  these  wars,  the  Serbs  were  almost  compensated  by  the  gain  in  national 
pride  and  confidence. 

Military  service  is  compulsory,  from  the  age  of  18  to  50,  though  recruits 
may  enter  at  21  and  complete  their  service  at  45.  The  soldier  serves  one  and  a 
half  years  in  the  infantry  (two  in  the  cavalry  and  artillery)  ;  he  then  passes  into 
the  reserve  to  complete  10  years  and  serves  6  years  more  in  the  2nd  ban  and  8 
years  more  in  the  3rd.     The  kingdom  is  divided  into  5  divisional  areas,  each 


264 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


supplying  a  division  of  the  active  army  of  2  infantry  brigades,  a  field  artillery 
regiment  and  a  regiment  of  divisional  cavalry.  There  is  also  a  cavalry  division 
of  4  regular  regiments,  recruited  from  the  whole  country.  The  total  peace 
strength  (1912)  was  2,038  officers  and  28,000  men,  which,  with  the  aid  of  all 
effective  reserves,  could  be  raised  to  195,000. 

Servia  expended  on  the  army  in  1914,  $958,835.     Servia  has  no  aeroplane 
fleet,  but  possesses  a  few  scouting  aeroplanes. 


TYPES   OF   SOLDIERS 


"FIRE" 


Japan 


YOSHiH  TO  harl::o:.:.\a 


EMPRESS   SADAKO 


H.  M.  MUTSHITO.  LATE  MIKADO  OF  JAPAN 


YOSHIHITO  HARUNOMIYA 

The  Emperor  Yoshihito  Harunomiya  was  born  on  August  31,  1879.  at  the 
Aoyama  Palace,  the  third  son  of  the  Emperor  Mutshito  and  the  Countess  Yanaga- 
ware.  Though  of  frail  physique,  his  severe  and  simple  training  and  fondness  for 
sports  has  succeeded  in  giving  him  normal  health.  He  received  his  education  at 
the  Peer's  School,  where  he  distinguished  himself  in  Chinese  Classics  and  French, 
He  is  particularly  fond  of  writing  poetry  and  his  efforts  in  Chinese  and  Japanese 
verse  are  much  admired.  He  began  his  military  education  under  General  Oku 
and  at  sixteen  was  appointed  colonel  in  the  army.  According  to  the  custom 
whereby  the  Emperor  names  the  most  promising  of  his  sons  to  succeed  him,  and 
owing  to  the  death  of  his  two  older  brothers,  he  was  declared  heir  apparent  in  1887 
and  proclaimed  Crown  Prince  in  1889.  He  married  on  May  10,  1900,  the  Princess 
Sadako,  daughter  of  Prince  Michitaka  of  the  House  of  Kujo.  The  Empress  has 
also  received  a  modern  education,  and  both  the  Emperor  and  Empress  usually 
appear  in  European  dress.  They  have  adopted  European  customs  to  a  much 
greater  degree  than  the  Emperor  Mutshito,  and  the  new  palace  built  for  the  Crown 
Prince  is  in  the  European  style.  Yoshihito  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death 
of  his  father  on  July  30,  1912.  He  has  three  sons:  the  Princes  Hirohito 
Michinomiya  (b.  April  29,  1901),  Yasuhito  Atssunomija  (b.  June  25,  1902)  and 
Nobuhito  Terunomiya  (b.  Jan.  3,  1905). 


•x'i^' ■■"■■'■'  ' , 

;^:iiISTORY 

The  Japanese  claim  an  ancient  origin,  lost  in  the  myths  of  antiquity. 
According  to  their  legends,  there  was  in  the  beginning  a  divine  trinity,  resting 
on  "the  high  plain  of  heaven."  Bending  down  from  their  high  estate,  they 
separated  the  land  from  the  waters.  Then  through  indefinite  processes,  a  series 
of  seven  celestial  deities  came  into  being,  each  process  seeming  to  represent  a 
nearer  approach  to  earthly  things.  Finally  by  a  further  series  of  creations, 
purely  spiritual,  Japan  was  evolved,  and  from  the  earthly  union  of  the  two 
principal  deities,  the  race  of  the  Mikados  arose.  Other  stories  relate  how 
Sosanoo,  the  God  of  Force,  having  disobeyed  a  celestial  command  was  banished 
from  Heaven,  but  before  descending  to  Hades,  invested  one  of  his  descendants 
with  the  sovereignty  of  Japan,  and  hence  to  this  day  the  Japanese  claim  a  divine 
descent  for  their  emperors.     The  very  word  Mikado  means  venerable  or  august. 

Coming  down  to  historical  times,  we  find  that,  about  the  early  6th 
century,  B.  C,  Jimmu,  a  poor,  but  ambitious  prince  in  possession  of  a  small 
principality  on  the  Island  of  Kiousiou,  began  the  conquest  of  the  Japanese 
archipelago.  After  many  bloody  contests  with  the  natives,  he  succeeded  in 
establishing  his  authority,  and  at  his  death  in  585  left  a  fairly  stable  kingdom. 
The  chronicles  give  scanty  accounts  of  his  successors,  and  none  seem  to  have 
assumed  any  great  importance  until  Sujin  (98-30  B.  C).  He  undertook  vigorous 
campaigns  against  the  natives,  ordered  a  census,  levied  taxes  on  animal  skins, 
(which  were  to  be  paid  by  the  men)  and  on  textiles  (paid  by  the  women),  built 
up  a  coastwise  trade,  and  constructed  dikes  and  reservoirs.  The  Emperor  Keiko 
began  the  custom  of  granting  lands  to  the  numerous  royal  oflfspring,  and  thus  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  landed  nobility,  who  were  to  influence  so  widely  the  latter 
course  of  Japanese  history. 

Valuable  and  interesting  descriptions  of  the  early  Japanese  are  found  in  the 
Chinese  records  from  25  to  265  of  our  era,  and  in  point  of  accuracy  are  reliable, 
though  the  historical  period  of  Japan  does  not  begin  until  about  400.  Chinese 
immigration,  directly  and  indirectly  through  Korea,  began  early  to  flow  into  the 
country,  and  with  the  introduction  of  Buddhism  from  Korea  in  552,  Chinese 
civilization  took  deep  root.  The  new  faith  did  not  entirely  supercede  the  old 
religion  of  Shintoism,  for  at  various  times  cults  were  formed  for  its  preservation. 
Chinese  customs,  laws  and  art  were  introduced,  and  the  Japanese  even  adopted 
the  ancient  Chinese  literature  as  their  own  in  a  sense  much  stronger  and  more 
intimate  than  Europe  adopted  the  Greek  and  Latin.  Chinese  music  and  dancing 
were  taught,  cross-bows  and  catapaults  were  added  to  the  war  equipment,  and 
architecture  followed  the  Buddhist  style.  The  luxurious  refinements  of  Chinese 
life  were  eagerly  adopted,  and  in  scale  of  living  and  magnificence  of  dress,  the 
Japanese  far  outshown  their  models.  Kioto  was  at  one  time  made  the  royal  city, 
and  the  Emperors,  surrounded  by  their  numerous  wives,  rarely  left  the  palace. 
As  a  consequence,  the  direction  of  political  affairs  easily  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  great  families,  and  as  the  Emperors  felt  the  substance  of  their  power  slipping 
away,  they  attempted  to  grasp  the  shadow  by  the  organization  of  the  religious 
hierarchy,  appointing  its  members  from  the  imperial  family.  Kioto  came  thus 
to    be    the    sacred    city    and    its    shrines    the    center    of    pilgrimage    for    all 


272 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


Japan.  The  nominal  power  still  remained  with  the  Emperor,  but  the  actual 
rule  was  in  the  firm  and  capable  hands  of  the  great  families  or  clans,  who  by 
matrimonial  alliances  with  royalty,  or  force,  ruled  with,  or  in  spite  of,  the 
Emperor,  and  from  the  9th  to  the  19th  centuries  the  history  of  Japan  is  the 
history  of  the  Fujiwara,  the  Taira,  the  Miniamoto  and  the  Tokugawa  families. 

Under  the  Fujiwara  families  many  temples  were  built,  and  great  strides 
made  in  art  and  literature-  Literary  proficiency  was  considered  the  end  of 
existence  and  a  man  "estimated  the  conjugal  qualities  of  a  young  lady  by  her 
skill  in  finding  scholarly  similes  and  by  her  perception  of  the  cadence  of  words." 
Side  by  side  with  these  refinements,  however,  a  system  of  military  feudalism 
began  to  crystallize,  which  reached  full  development  under  the  Taira  and 
Miniamoto  families,  and  which  in  spite  of  much  opposition  held  the  country  in 
a  powerful  grip.  Society  was  divided  into  three  groups:  the  court  and  nobility 
(kuge),  the  military  class  (samurai),  and  the  common  people  (heimin).  The 
Emperor  screened  in  the  recesses  of  his  palace,  was  popularly  supposed  to  be 
absorbed  in  mediation  between  his  heavenly  ancestors  and  his  people,  while  the 
shogun  and  samurai  kindly  relieved  him  of  all  wordly  concerns.  He  never 
appeared  in  public  uncovered,  and  granted  an  audience  from  behind  closed  doors. 
Only  his  chief  ministers  and  consorts  had  the  inestimable  pleasure  of  viewing 
his  countenance;  he  had  one  wife,  the  Empress,  but  might  have  twelve  consorts, 
and  in  case  of  failure  of  direct  issue,  the  succession  went  to  one  of  the  Aisugawa 
or  Fushimi,  though  adoption  was  resorted  to  in  special  cases.  The  court 
nobility  traced  their  lineage  from  the  ancient  Mikados,  filled  all  the  court  offices 
by  right  of  inheritance,  receiving  indeed  but  a  small  recompense  for  their  privi- 
leges, and  lived  a  life  of  dignified  poverty,  occupying  themselves  with  the 
consolations  of  literature  and  art.  The  samurai  (see  Army)  held  hereditary 
positions  in  the  administrative  posts.  The  heimin  had  no  social  position  whatever 
and  lived  as*  best  they  eould  by  the  fruit  of  their  toil.  Below  these  were  the  eta 
(defiled  folk)  and  the  hinin  (outcasts),  who  were  utterly  abandoned  and  despised 
by  all,  and  made  to  live  in  a  class  by  themselves.  They  had  their  own  social 
organization  and  what  with  one  trade  and  another,  some  even  managed  to  amass 
considerable  wealth.  They  were  held  in  subjection  until  1871,  when  they  were 
admitted  to  the  ranks  of  commoners. 

By  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  the  strife  between  the  feudal  families 
had  reduced  Japan  to  such  an  unhappy  state  of  confusion  that  she  seemed  doomed 
to  perish;  but  fortunately  at  this  juncture,  three  men  appeared  who  by  force 
of  genius  and  circumstance  were  able  to  bring  order  out  of  chaos  and  confer  a 
lasting  peace  upon  their  distracted  country.     They  were  Nobunaga,  Tokugawa 


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JAPAN. 


275 


lyeyasu  and  Hicleyoshi.  Hideyoshi  began  as  a  groom  in  Nobunaga's  service,  and 
by  sheer  force  of  ability  rose  to  a  commanding  position  in  the  empire.  lyeyasu, 
though  a  firm  Buddhist,  introduced  the  code  of  Confusius  and  at  his  death  left 
Japan  with  a  settled  government.  During  the  reigns  of  these  men,  Christianity 
was  introduced  by  St.  Francis  Xavier  and  his  followers,  and  though  they  were 
at  first  received  with  encouragement,  Hideyoshi  and  lyeyasu  eventually  turned 
against  the  new  faith.  By  1639,  not  only  was  Christianity  exterminated,  but  the 
country  was  committed  to  a  policy  of  exclusion  and  isolation  which  remained 
unbroken  until  1853,  when  Commodore  Perry  sailed  into  Uraga  Bay  with  his 
squadron  of  four  ships-of-war.  This  visit  sounded  the  death  knell  of  the  feudal 
system ;  the  wisest  of  her  statesmen  saw  that  Japan  could  not  continue  as  before. 
The  western  world  would  seek  her,  and  if  she  were  to  retain  her  position  and 
increase  her  influence,  western  ideas  and  progressive  reforms  must  be  entertained. 
The  people  were  beginning  to  be  restive  under  the  rule  of  the  shoguns  and  public 
opinion  was  thus  somewhat  prepared  for  a  change.  On  October  14,  1867,  the 
Shogun  Yoshinobu,  a  man  of  progressive  policy,  and  advanced  ideas,  though 
there  were  not  wanting  men  to  impugn  his  motives,  resigned  his  authority,  restor- 
ing it  to  the  Emperor  Mutshito,  then  but  fifteen  years  of  age.  Mutshito  proved  a 
man  of  liberal  convictions  and  shrewd  foresight,  capable  of  appreciating  the 
value  of  western  ideas  and  able  to  draw  around  him  men  of  the  ability  and  energy 
necessary  for  the  successful  inauguration  of  the  new  reforms. 

Liberal  measures  in  accordance  with  western  ideas  were  gradually  adopted  in 
industry,  science,  commerce,  military  matters,  education,  art  and  government. 
The  Japanese  have  a  wonderful  power  of  assimilating  new  methods ;  their  alert 
and  agile  minds  are  marvelously  swift  to  grasp  the  essentials  of  a  new  idea,  quick 
to  modify  and  apply,  and  hence  the  reforms  made  a  headway  that  is  almost 
incredible  to  western  minds.  Almost  overnight  old  customs  and  laws  were  over- 
thrown, seemingly  without  a  ripple  on  the  smooth  surface  of  events,  and  the 
re-adjustment  came  about  apparently  with  the  calmness  of  the  natural  course  of 
events.  As  to  whether  these  changes  have  really  touched  the  core  of 
that  subtle  oriental  mind,  glimpses  of  which  still  shine  through  the  keen  Japanese 
eye,  only  the  course  of  events  can  decide.  In  1871  an  imperial  decree  put  an 
end  to  the  system  of  local  autonomy  and  removed  the  territorial  nobles  from  the 
posts  of  governors.  This  change  also  marked  the  end  of  the  samurai  as  a 
privileged  class.  With  remarkable  resignation  they  submitted  to  the  loss  of  their 
position  and  gradually,  without  a  murmur,  found  places  among  the  ranks  of  the 
common  people.     Under  the  skillful  guidance  of  Prince  Ito,  Count  Okuma  and 


276 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


Count  Itagaki,  the  reforms  were  carried  to  conclusion.  In  1890,  a  constitution, 
drafted  by  Prince  Ito,  was  given  to  the  people. 

Filled  with  confidence  and  pride  at  the  marvelous  development  of  their 
country,  the  nation  began  to  feel  the  necessity  for  expansion.  A  dispute  with 
China  over  the  relations  of  the  two  countries  with  Korea,  led  to  the  Chinese  War 
of  1894,  and  from  it  Japan  emerged  with  a  formidable  reputation  for  military 
efficiency.  She  gained  also  the  Islands  of  Formosa  and  the  Pescadores,  and  a 
slice  of  Manchuria.  The  Russian  policy  in  the  Far  East,  particularly  in  Man- 
churia and  Korea,  was  watched  with  jealous  alarm  by  Japan,  but  it  was  not  until 
1904  that  she  felt  sufficiently  strong,  and  the  course  of  events  allowed  her  to 
attack  Russia.  The  Russo-Japanese  War  made  her  the  dominating  power 
in  the  Far  East,  gave  her  preponderance  in  Korea  (which  she  annexed  in  1910), 
the  lease  of  the  Liaotung  peninsula  and  the  southern  half  of  the  Island  of 
Sakhalin,  besides  other  minor  concessions.  Japan  also  entered  into  important 
commercial  treaties  with  the  United  States  and  European  powers,  and  in  1902 
concluded  an  entente  with  Great  Britain,  which  in  1905  was  changed  to  an 
offensive  and  defensive  alliance.  Thus  strengthened  by  foreign  alliances,  and 
secure  in  her  position  in  the  East,  Japan  at  last  felt  justified  in  considering  herself 
one  of  the  world  powers.  The  Emperor  Mutshito  died  in  1912  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Yoshihito. 

Japan  has  an  area  of  147,655  sq.  mi.,  and  a  population  of  52,985,423.  The 
land  is  largely  held  by  peasant  proprietors  and  the  chief  industry  is  agriculture. 
Coal,  copper,  sulphur,  iron  and  gold  are  considerably  mined,  and  manufactures  are 
rapidly  developing.  The  exports  for  1913-14  amounted  to  $263,490,  920  and  the 
imports  to  $309,496,155. 

The  colonies  and  dependencies  are:  Cho-sen  or  Korea  (annexed  in  1910, 
area,  84,000  sq.  mi.;  pop.,  15,164,066),  Formosa  (area,  13,944  sq.  mi.;  pop., 
3,512,607,  mostly  Chinese),  the  Pescadores  (area,  85  sq.  mi.;  pop.,  55,222), 
Sakhalin  (ceded  by  the  Treaty  of  Portsmouth,  1905 ;  area,  12,582  sq.  mi. ;  pop., 
42,612),  Kwantung  Province,  including  Port  Arthur  and  Dairen  (Russia  trans- 
ferred the  lease,  which  expires  in  1923,  by  the  Treaty  of  Portsmouth;  area,  1,219 
sq.  mi.;  pop.,  501,767). 

According  to  the  constitution,  the  executive  power  is  vested  in  the  Emperor. 
who  is  assisted  by  his  ministers  whom  he  appoints ;  and  the  legislative  in  the 
Emperor  and  the  Diet.  The  Diet  consists  of  a  House  of  Peers  (peers  elected  for 
life,  including  male  members  of  the  imperial  family,  princes  and  marquises  over 
25  years,  and  persons  nominated  by  the  Emperor  for  special  services;  and  peers 
elected  for  7  years),  and  the  House  of  Representatives  (members  elected  for 
4  years). 


GENERAL  KATO   KIYOMASA   PARDONING  THE   TWO   KOREAN   PRINCES 


278''-'  ''-''' 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


TYPES   OF  UNIFORMS 


ADMIRAL  TAKARABE 
Minister  of   Marine 


ADMIRAL  DAVA 

In  Command  of  the  Operations 

Against  Tsing-Tau 


1.  ORDER  OF  THE  SUNRISE 

2.  ORDER  OF  THE  SACRED  TREASURE 


THE  ARMY 


According  to  Japanese  tradition,  Japan  was  from  the  very  beginning  a  nation 
of  warriors.  The  sovereign  was  the  commander-in-chief,  and  all  subjects  were 
obligated  to  serve  in  the  ranks.  About  712,  Chinese  models  of  warfare  were 
adopted  and  the  distinction  between  civil  and  military  was  first  established  then. 
One-third  of  the  physically  fit  constituted  the  army,  service  was  for  a  definite 
time,  and  arms  were  served  out  by  the  State  as  occasion  demanded.  Officers 
received  definite  commissions,  a  military  office  was  organized,  and  each  important 
district  throughout  the  empire  had  its  military  division.  At  the  close  of  the  8th 
century  the  Japanese  in  defense  against  the  natives,  had  to  enlarge  their  forces 
and  the  conscription  was  greatly  increased.  The  powerful  clans  began  to  claim 
military  positions  as  their  right  and  to  pass  them  down  from  father  to  son.  In 
the  12th  century  the  country  was  brought  under  the  sway  of  the  Miniamoto  clan 
and  the  samurai  alone  had  the  right  of  bearing  arms.  The  military  class  claimed 
social  and  military  supremacy  until  the  19th  century. 

This  system  developed  among  the  samurai  a  type  of  soldier,  frugal,  loyal 
and  pious  to  the  last  degree.  They  received  their  pay  in  so  many  rations  of  rice, 
delivered  from  the  chief's  granaries ;  a  few  even  had  landed  estates,  usually 
bestowed  in  recognition  of  merit,  but  the  samurai  profoundly  despised  everything 
connected  with  money.  Their  dearest  privilege  was  the  right  of  wearing  a  sword, 
and  at  any  moment  they  were  prepared  to  sacrifice  themselves  out  of  loyalty  to 
chief  or  country.  Thorough  stoics,  they  were  trained  to  face  suffering  without 
flinching  and  taught  that  suicide  (harakiri)  was  often  the  noblest  and  highest 
form  of  duty,  especially  if  it  were  thought  that  it  would  turn  a  liege  lord  from  a 
course  injurious  to  his  fame  or  fortune. 

Martial  exercises  took  up  much  of  their  time,  but  they  also  paid  considerable 
attention  to  learning  and  followed  a  set  code  of  manners.  The  bow  and  sword 
were  the  chief  weapons,  and  in  the  use  of  the  latter  the  soldier  gained  a  wonderful 
skill  and  dexterity.  A  samurai  usually  carried  two  swords,  and  before  going 
into  battle  provided  himself  with  five  or  six,  and  a  dagger,  for  good  measure, 
stuck  into  his  bosom.  Until  1274,  men  fought  as  individuals  and  not  units,  but 
the  obvious  disadvantage  of  such  a  system  led  to  the  adoption  of  better  tactics, 
though  it  was  not  until  the  17th  century  that  strictly  disciplined  action  came  into 
use.  Buddhism  supplied  a  great  impetus  to  the  samurai's  conception  of  duty  and 
of  life,  and  was  largely  instrumental  in  developing  his  qualities  of  endurance 


280 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


and  fatalism,  qualities  which  yet  add  enormously  to  the  fighting  power  of  the 
Japanese  soldier. 

Though  after  the  Shimabara  insurrection,  the  samurai  was  forbidden  foreign 
learning,  new  ideas  filtered  in  little  by  little.  Takashima  Shuhan  endeavored  to 
persuade  his  government  of  the  importance  of  adopting  foreign  and  modern 
methods,  but  was  thrown  into  prison  for  his  pains.  Egawa,  his  follower,  was 
more  successful  and  the  appearance  of  the  American  war  vessels  in  1853  decided 
the  government  to  heed  his  urgings.  In  1862  the  military  system  of  the  West  was 
introduced  and  Omura  Masujiro  founded  a  military  school  at  Kioto  (1868).  In 
1872  the  Imperial  Guard  was  organized,  the  military  authority  was  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  central  government,  the  war  and  navy  departments  were  created, 
and  universal  conscription  was  substituted  (1873)  for  hereditary  militarism. 
From  then  the  army  was  thoroughly  re-organized  on  German  lines,  with  results 
shown  in  the  Chinese  War  of  1894  and  the  Russo-Japanese  War  of  1904.  In 
both  Japan  was  uniformly  successful. 

Military  service  is  compulsory  from  the  age  of  17  to  40  but  20  is  the  more 
usual  age  for  joining.  The  soldier  serves  two  years  in  the  infantry  (three  in 
the  other  arms),  seven  and  one-third  in  the  first  reserve,  ten  in  the  second  reserve, 
and  the  remainder  in  the  national  army.  A  special  reserve,  consisting  of  men  who 
have  escaped  service  with  the  colors,  is  divided  into  two  classes :  one  which 
serves  seven  and  one-third  years  and  the  other  one  and  one-third  years,  and  then 
the  men  pass  into  the  territorial  army,  in  which  they  receive  no  training.  Con- 
scripts may  be  discharged  before  the  completion  of  their  two  years,  for  exceptional 
merit. 

The  army  is  divided  into  the  active  army  (foreign  service),  with  the  first 
and  second  reserves,  the  national  army  (home  defense),  a  few  special  forces, 
and  the  militia  of  certain  of  the  islands.  The  peace  strength  numbers  150  infantry 
battaHons;  55  squadrons  of  cavalry;  177  batteries  of  field  artillery;  24  battalions 
of  coast  artillery;  13  battalions,  pioneers;  13  battalions,  train;  one  railway  and 
one  telegraph  battalion ; — giving  a  total  of  about  350,000  men.  To  this  may  be 
added  250,000  in  the  first  reserve,  and  1,000,000  in  the  second.  Thus  with  all 
available  reserves  the  war  strength  would  be  about  3,000,000. 

Japan  expended  for  her  army  in  1914,  $49,983,035. 


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INFANTRY  CHARGING 


284 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


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ENGINEERS   BUILDING  A   BRIDGE 


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THE  NAVY 


Though  the  geographical  position  of 
Japan  demands  a  navy,  the  country 
never  made  any  attempts  to  secure  one 
until  1853,  when  the  visit  of  the  Ameri- 
can squadron  suggested  to  the  govern- 
ment the  advantages  of  a  policy  of  build- 
ing warships.  In  1855  a  navy  yard  was 
opened  at  Nagasaki,  and  a  naval  school 
organized  at  Tsukiji  in  Yedo.  Two 
vessels  purchased  from  the  Dutch,  and 
one  presented  by  Queen  Victoria,  formed 
the  nucleus  of  the  fleet;  in  1860  the 
"Kwanrin  Manu,"  the  first  Japanese 
warship,  crossed  the  Pacific.  After  the 
American  Civil  War  the  Japanese  pur- 
chased the  Confederate  armored  ram 
"Stonewall,"  and  began  a  definite  naval 
policy.  In  1882  a  program  of  30  cruisers 
and  12  torpedo  boats  was  laid  down,  but 
little  more  was  done  until  1892,  when  it 
was  decided  to  appropriate  annually 
$150,000  for  the  navy.  In  the  Chinese 
War  of  1894,  Japan  had  28  cruisers  and 
24  torpedo  boats,  but  with  this  slender 
force  managed  to  defeat  the  superior 
Chinese  fleet  ofif  the  Yalu  and  at  Wei- 
hai-wei.  After  this  modern  ships  were 
ordered  in  Europe  and  in  the  Russian 
War,  the  fleet  was  very  successful.  It  then  numbered  6  battleships,  8  armored 
cruisers,  44  other  cruisers,  19  destroyers,  and  80  torpedo  boats. 

The  navy  is  under  the  control  of  a  minister  of  Marine  and  a  vice-minister, 
who  are  assisted  by  10  departments  on  naval  affairs  and  a  general  stafif.  The 
navy  is  manned  partly  by  conscription  and  partly  by  volunteers ;  about  5,000  are 
called  every  year  (45  per  cent  conscript).  The  service  is  for  four  years  active 
and  seven  in  the  reserve.  The  personnel  numbers  65,559,  with  a  small  reserve 
(6,000). 


286 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


BATTLESHIP  "TANGO" 

Since  1882  Japan  has  dispensed  with  foreign  instruction ;  since  1886  she  has 
been  able  to  manufacture  prismatic  powder,  and  since  1891,  quick-firing  guns. 
In  1892  a  Japanese  officer  invented  the  powerful  explosive,  Shimose. 
The  strength  of  the  fleet  in  1914  is : 

Built  Building 

Battleships     15  1 

Battle   cruisers    1  3 

Armored  cruisers   13  — 

Protected  cruisers 

1st  class   2  — 

2nd  class    13  — 

3rd  class 4  — 

Unprotected  cruisers   4  — 

Torpedo  vessels    3  — 

Torpedo  destroyers    59  — 

Torpedo  boats 57  — 

Submarines      13  2 

Japan  expended  for  the  navy  in  1913-14,  $49,304,560. 


JACK 
& 

MERCANTILE 
ENSICN 


ADMIRAL  VICE 

ADMIRAL 


OFFICER 

COMMANDING 

TORPEDO  DIVISION 


JAPAN 


I  Ki  ISER  "KONGO" 


BAT'J'LESI-IIP  "KASHIArA" 


DREADNOUGHT  "SETTSU" 


288 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


ON  BOARD  A  DREADNOUGHT 


SEA  MINE  EXPLOSION 


JAPAN. 


289 


BATTLESHIP   "SUWO" 


ARAlokiaj   CRUl.-^ER   ••JlilUHi' 


290 


THE  EUROPEAN  WAR. 


LOADING  A  T\VELVE-L\CH  GUN 


LAUNCHING   A  TORPEDO 


JAPAN. 


291 


SEMI-DREADNOUGHT   "AKF 


ARMORED  CRUISER  "MISSKIN" 


292 


JAPAN. 


SUBMARINE 


BATTLESHIP  "GWAMI" 


^n^m^^^f^^mmmm^m^^^MMMmimm^ 


VARIOUS  PICTURES  OF  PRESENT  INTEREST 


.■//;/;y/yy/y//>..wy/y//jyyyM 


NAPOLEON  III  AND  BISMARCK 
Preliminary  negotiations  for  the  surrender  of  Sedan 


SIGNING  THE  NEW  CONCORDAT  BETWEEN  SERVIA  AND  THE  HOLY  SEE, 

JUNE  24,  1914 


vServia  had  before  the  Balkan  War  about  10,000  Catholics  mostly  for- 
eigners, but  in  1913  the  new  territories  added  a  large  number  of  Catholics, 
and  the  question  of  their  jurisdiction  threatened  to  complicate  the  strained 
relations  existing  between  Austria-Hungary  and  Servia.  The  word  Catholic 
had  come  to  be  synonomous  with  Austrian,  and  the  people  viewed  with  alarm 
any  possibility  of  the  extension  of  Austrian  influence.  King  Peter  proposed 
to  the  Holy  See  to  conclude  a  concordat  directly  with  the  Servian  government, 
thus  removing  any  cause  of  friction  that  might  arise  from  the  possibility  of 
Austrian  control,  and  on  June  24,  1914,  the  concordat  was  signed  by  His 
Eminence,  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val  and  Dr.  Vesnitch,  Plenipotentiary  of  King 
Peter.  The  announcement  of  this  concordat,  so  near  the  assassination  of  the 
late  Archduke  Ferdinand,  added  to  the  grievances  of  the  Austrian-Hungarian 
government  against  Servia. 


THE  CZAR  AND  THE  KAISER 
The  Kaiser  in  Russian  uniform  inspecting  a  company  of  his  regiment  during  his  last 

visit  to  Russia 


PRESIDENT   POINCARfi  AND  THE  CZAR  ON  THE  OCCASION   OF  HIS  LAST 
VISIT  TO  RUSSIA,  JUST  BEFORE  THE  WAR 


KING  GEORGE  AND   PRESIDENT   POINCARE 


THE  PRINCE  OF  WALES  AND  PRESIDEN^^POINCARfi 


EMPEROR   FRANCIS  JOSEPH    IN  THE  UNIFORM   OF  A  MARSHAL  OF 

GERMANY  AND  EMPEROR  WILLIAM  IN  THE  UNIFORM 

OF  A  MARSHAL  OF  AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


THE  KAISER  AND  THE   LATE  ARCHDUKE  FRANCIS  FERDINAND 
IN  UNIFORM  AS  GERMAN  ADMIRAL 


IN  STRONG  CONTRAST  TO  THE  PRESENT  INTERCOURSE  BETWEEN 
FRANCE  AND  GERMANY,  THESE  PICTURES  SHOW  A  GROUP  OF  FRENCH 
AND  GERMAN  SOLDIERS,  ENGAGED  IN  A  PLEASANT  EXCHANGE  OF 
FRIENDLY  RELATIONS  DURING  THE  MANOEUVRES  OF  THE  SUMMER 
OF  1913. 


AUSTRIAN,  ENGLISH,  FRENCH.  GERMAN,  ITALIAN  AND  RUSSIAN 

OFFICERS  WITHIN  THE  TURKISH  LINES  IN  A  FRIENDLY 

DISCUSSION   OF  THE   BALKAN   WAR 


OFFICERS  OF  ALL  NATIONS  AT  THE  AUSTRIAN-HUNGARIAN 
'  MANOEUVRES 


INDEX 

INTRODUCTION     P^ge  VII  to  page  IX 

THE  RED   CROSS    "        I^  to     "XVI 

I  i-fiCT/OA^— AUSTRIA-HUNGARY    page  1 

The  Hapsburg  Family page  3  to  "9 

History  and  Statistics  of  Austria-Hungary    "      9  to  ''    13 

History  and  Statistics  of  the  Army,   The   Army "    13  to  "    29 

History  and  Statistics  of  the  Navy,  The   Navy "  29  to  "    39 

II  5£CT/0A— ENGLAND    page  39 

The  Guelph  Family page  41  to  "  49 

History  and  Statistics  of  England   "     49  to  "  52 

History  and  Statistics  of  the  Army,  The   Army "      52  to  "  66 

History  and  Statistics  of  the  Navy,  The   Navy i    "     66  to  "  81 

III  SECTION— FRANCE   page  81 

The   President    page  83  to  "  87 

History  and  Statistics  of  France    "      87  to  "  92 

History  and  Statistics  of  the  Army,  The   Army "      92  to  "  111 

History  and  Statistics  of  the  Navy,  The   Navy "    111  to  "  125 

IV  5£Cr/0A^— GERMANY    page  125 

The    HohenzoUern    Family page  127  to  "  136 

History  and  Statistics  of  Germany   "  136  to  "  143 

History  and  Statistics  of  the  Army,   The   Army "  143  to  "  165 

History  and  Statistics  of  the  Navy,  The   Navy "  165  to  *'  ^  181 

V  5£Cr/0 A^— RUSSIA    page  181 

The    Romanov    Family page  183  to  "  192 

History  and  Statistics  of  Russia    "      192  to  "  198 

History  and  Statistics  of  the  Army,  The   Army    "      198  to  "  217 

History  and  Statistics  of  the  Navy,  The    Navy     "      217  to  "  22S 


VI  SECTION 

BELGIUM    page  225 

The  Wettin  Family page    227  to     "      233 

History  and  Statistics  of  Belgium    "        233  to     "       2i7 

History  and  Statistics  of  the  Army,   The   Army "        237  to    "       243 

LUXEMBURG   "        243  to    "      247 

The  Grand  Duchess  Marie  and  the  History  and  Statistics 
of  Luxemburg 

MONTENEGRO    page  247  to  page  253 

Nicholas  I,  History  and  Statistics  of  Montenegro,  History 
and  Statistics  of  the  Army 

SERVIA  page  253 

Peter  I    page  255  to     "       260 

History  and  Statistics  of    Servia    '      260  to     "       263 

History  and  Statistics  of  the  Army.  The   Army "      263  to     "       265 

VII  SECTION 

I  Part— JAPAN  page  265 


The    Imperial   Family page  267  to 

History  and  Statistics  of  Japan    "     271  to 

History  and  Statistics  of  the  Army,  The   Army    "     279  to 

History  and  Statistics  of  the  Navy,  The   Navy "     285  to 

II  Part — Various  Pictures  of  Present  Interest 


271 
279 
285 
293 
293 


The  great  powers  of  the  first  five  sections  follow  in  alphabetical  order,  as  do 
also  the  powers  of  Section  VI. 


ERRATA. 


Page  7^  line  29,  for  1899  read  1889. 

Page  17,  line  2,  for  The  Empire  is  divided  into  16  army  corps  as  follows,  read 

The  Empire  is  divided  into  16  army  corps  and  the  whole  army  is  organized 

as  follows : 
Page  18,  Read  at  end  of  paragraph:     Austria-Hungary  maintained  in  1914  an 

airfleet  of  112  aeroplanes  and  7  dirigibles. 
Page  86,  for  M.  Delcasse,  War  Minister,  read  M.  Delcasse,  Minister  of  Foreign 

Affairs. 
Page  93,  line  13,  for  Henry  IX,  read  Henry  IV. 
Page  148,  for  The  71  cm.  anti-aircraft  Krupp  gun,  read  The  7.1  cm.  anti-aircraft 

Krupp  gun. 
Page  157,  for  Field  Artillery  in  x\ction,  read  Artillery  practising  with  dummy 

field  pieces. 
Page  246,  line  43,  for  1905,  read  1912. 


DAY    AND    TO    51"'-' 

OVERDUE.  ^ 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

